Canine Connections: The Origins of Man’s Best Friend

Dogs are considered man’s best friend, and why shouldn’t they be?  They are loyal, playful, and helpful.  Dogs have been known to diagnose disease in the ill, flush out hidden drugs and bombs, as well as search and rescue humans trapped under various types of debris.  Humans and dogs have a very connected history that is very well understood today, but until recently it was unknown specifically how and when this history began.  Last year, however, the origins of the domestication of dogs was more precisely known based on a discovery in Siberia, adding another layer to the mystery of dog domestication.  Today’s blog post is going to discuss this new evidence, as well as other pieces of evidence related to the origins of dog domestication.

For many years archaeological and genetic evidence suggested that dogs were domesticated from wolves between 12,000 to 15,000 years ago.  Dogs were believed to have been domesticated at the advent of agriculture across the Old World (Europe, the Middle East, and Asia), but the exact location of dog domestication was unknown.  In 2015, though, the discovery of a Taimyr wolf bone in Siberia by Love Dalén and the subsequent analysis of the bone clarified the debate.  Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analyses of this bone suggests that dogs originated from the Taimyr wolf, pushing the date of domestication back to 27,000 and 40,000 years ago, which is when humans were largely nomadic and relied on hunting and gathering.  Not only that but the Taimyr wolf also gave rise to modern day wolves prior to its extinction.   

While the date and time of dog domestication has been clarified it is remains unclear as to how exactly domestication occurred.  Some scholars believe that early canines were easily domesticated because humans and dogs share several social and behavioral characteristics in common.  It is believed because both species are social, pack like creatures that travel and thrive in groups the connection was bound to occur.  It is further believed that early dogs and humans hunted similar prey, and therefore they may have worked cooperatively to meet their nutritional needs.  As this behavior became patterned domestication may have coevolved and dogs and humans domesticated each other.  Another prevailing idea about the domestication of wolves into dogs is the notion that early humans merely took in orphaned pups and raised them as their personal as well as occupational companions.    

It is still too early to determine which of the above ideas is more likely as no new evidence has been released, but hopefully this new discovery and subsequent analyses of additional evidence will lead to further clarification regarding the domestication of dogs.  What is clear thus far is that it appears that dogs were the earliest domesticated animal species, and that selective breeding, or the intentional breeding for specific traits, has led to the various breeds of dog that we know of today and the behavioral traits that reinforce the notion that dogs truly are man’s best friend.

References Cited


Dunham, W.  2015.  "Dog Domestication Much Older Than Previously Known."  Scientific American.


Fessenden M. 2015.  "Humans May Have Domesticated Dogs Tens of Thousands of Years Earlier Than Thought."  Smithsonian Magazine.


Grimm D.  2015.  "Feature: Solving the Mystery of Dog Domestication."  Science Magazine.

No Author.  No Date.  "6. Evolution and Domestication of Wolves."  Kids Planet. 


Savolainen P.  2007.  "Domestication of Dogs."  In The Behavioral Biology of Dogs, edited by Jensen, P.  Science.

The Truth of the Nkisi

Figure 1: Artistic representation of Minkisi.  Owned by author.  Photo is author's own.

What does the above image (Figure 1) mean to you?  What sort of emotional response does it elicit?  What were your initial thoughts? If this image disgusts or offends you are not alone, but this image is an artistic representation of a nkisi (plural, minkisi), which is a power figure that holds a specific religious significance among the BaKongo (or Kongo) people of Western Africa.  The nkisi also have another name, fetish, which is the term given to them by Portuguese sailors misunderstood the purpose of the nkisi.  This blog post will explore the true meaning of the nkisi by exploring the history of their discovery and the misrepresentations of them in Western cultures in the past and today, followed by a thorough discussion of what the minkisi truly are and represent.  

In the 16^th and 17^th centure Portuguese sailors came upon the African continent and came in contact with the BaKongo (Kongo) people.  The sailors saw the minkisi and interpreted them to represent primitive objects that represented magic and supernatural belief systems, which was based on the sailors’ own cultural values and beliefs.  These sailors were the first to identify the minkisi as fetishes, but this misunderstanding was perpetuated by later European missionaries who sought to destroy African cultures and beliefs out of ethnocentric motivations.  The idea of the minkisi representing primitive and magical objects continued as it supported Western notions of superiority over other cultures that were radically different, and the term continues today as a means of identifying and explaining what these objects are.  The term fetish, however, is a very derogatory one as it represents primitive, infantile, and ignorance, none of which actually represent what the minkisi embody.

The minkisi are manmade objects that were created cooperatively by a sculptor and a nganga, a ritual specialist, who would imbue the physical object with a nkisi spirit.  They are commissioned to be created by either an individual or by the group in order to meet a social or physical need.  Minkisi, which are now appropriately referred to as power figures, fertility figures, or dance staffs, were used to cure illnesses and disease, solidifying social and political alliances, and/or predispose an individual or entity to harm or assistance.  Each nkisi was fashioned individually for a specific purpose, although there are common elements among all of them.  The minkisi were often created out of bundles, shells, or wood (the latter of which appear to have been most popular), but there were cultural and temporal variations.  They all featured a hallowed out portion that was meant to house the nkisi spirit, as well as variations of form and style on the outside, representing its specific purpose.

After its creation the nkisi, the commissioner(s), and the nganga would cooperatively participate in a ritual to initiate the intended purpose of the nkisi.  As mentioned above, the purpose of each nkisi was specific to the need that fostered its creation, and therefore each ritual must have differed based on the specific needs of the commissioner(s).  Scholars do not know as much about these rituals as they were not accurately described by Europeans who witnessed them due to the ethnocentric interpretations of BaKongo (Kongo) and their religion.  What we do understand is that their religion was just as complex and intricate as many modern religions, and that the minkisi represented an integral part of not only their religion but also their social relations.  The minkisi were sometimes used in political negotiations to solidify alliances, as well as in social ceremonies to mediate disputes. 

Today, scholars recognize the minkisi as not just ritual objects but also great works of art given the complexity and creativity in their creation.  Art scholars prefer to study the minkisi to better understand their form and function, whereas as anthropologists continue to seek to comprehend their ritual and cultural significance.  Unfortunately, a lack of understanding of what the minkisi truly represent lends itself to the continued misinterpretation of these power figures and the cultures they represent.  I hope that now when you look at the above image (Figure 1) that your initial feelings have changed and that you take a culturally relativistic approach. 

References Cited

de Guzman, G.  N.D. “Fetish/Power/Art: Changing Perspectives on African Art”.  Web.

Harris, S.  No Date.  “Nkisi Nkondi, Kongo People”.  Khan Academy.

Hobbs, V.  1999.  “The Function of a ‘Fetish’ Figure.”  Conservation Journal. 

MacGaffey, W.  1994.  “African Objects and the Idea of Fetish.”  Anthropology and Aesthetics.  25: 123-131.

No Author.  1979.  "Power Figure (Nkisi) [Kongo peoples; Democratic Republic of Congo]" In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1979.206.127. (October 2006)

No Author.  No Date.  “Nassau and Kingsley on the African Fetish.”  Website.

Additional Resources

http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/exhibitions/African/Power
http://www.artsconnected.org/artsnetmn/whatsart/kongo.html

     

When Two Become One: Understanding the Process of Meiosis

“Where do babies come from?”  This is a popular question among children (and one that parents dread), but it does open up the discussion regarding the biology behind the creation of life.  As adults you should already be aware of how making babies occurs, but you probably are not aware of how the sperm and egg cells come into existence.  Today’s blog post is devoted to explaining the process of meiosis and how this process lends to the genetic diversity that exists in any given population.

Meiosis is a “specialized cell division that involves in  two cellular divisions and results in four daughter cells, each containing half of the original number of chromosomes (aka gamates)” (Jurmain et al. 2014).  In layman’s terms meiosis is the cellular division that leads to the creation of the reproductive cells (or gametes), which are the sperm and egg cells.  The gametes each carry half of the genetic material of the original (aka parent) cells, which is integral to genetic diversity in a population. 

As previously discussed each individual carries a specific number of genes which make up who and what he or she is (in a manner of speaking).  Our genes code for various biological characteristics, such as eye color, nose shape, presence or absence of hitchhiker thumb, etc.  Our genetic compositions are provided by each of our parents, with each providing half of the genes that are contained in the offspring.  There are variations of each gene, known as alleles, that exist in a population and each has an order of hierarchy in regards to expression (please see this post for more information).  Individuals can therefore carry the same two variations/alleles for a gene (e.g. two hitchhiker thumb alleles), or they can carry two different variations/alleles for a gene (e.g. one hitchhiker thumb allele and one non-hitchhiker thumb allele).  This is important because what is passed down to offspring and what is not is what leads to genetic variation that exists in a population.  

Figure 1: Steps of Meiosis

Several steps must occur for meiosis to occur (Figure 1).  First, the cells located in the reproductive organs must replicate the chromosomes within itself.  In humans there are 46 chromosomes, so these 46 double and become 92.  These 92 chromosomes are exact copies of the original 46 chromosomes, which divide equally along both sides of the cell.  The cell then divides itself in two, thereby creating two clones (exact duplicates) of the original parent cell.  Each of these clones carries the same 46 chromosomes of the parent cell.  If this process stopped here it would conclude mitosis (the simple cellular division that produces identical daughter cells), but meiosis has to continue since it results in gamete cells, each carrying half of the genetic material of the parent.  The process of meiosis continues as the cloned daughter cells undergo chromatic division again, but this time without first replicating as they had done previously.  The 46 chromosomes contained in each of the daughter cells divide into 23 chromosomes each, moving to the sides of the cell.  The daughter cells pinch down the middle and produce four daughter cells, each containing 23 chromosomes (half of the genetic material of the parent).

So where do babies come into play?  Each of these daughter cells that contain 23 chromosomes forms into either an egg cell (in females) or sperm cell (in males).  The union of the sperm and egg (typically though sexual reproduction) causes the fusion of the chromosomes contained in both to form  a complete organism, which in the case of humans is 23 + 23 = 46, or a human being.  In other words, two become one (Figure 2).  Note, for more information on meiosis please watch this video.

Figure 2: Where Babies Come From :P

References Cited

Farabee, MJ.  2007.  "Cell Division: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction."  Website. 

Jurmain, R; Kilgore, L; Trevathan, W; Ciochon, RL.  2014.  Introduction to Physical Anthropology.  Wadsworth Publishing.

The Biology Project.  2004.  "Meiosis Tutorial".  Website.