Universal Meanings of Body Language

Smiling seems to have a universal meaning of happiness based on several studies.

 

Have you ever watched a film in a foreign language and not been able to understand what they are saying but understood the contexts of the conversation?  What contexts clues were present that gave you those insights?  Chances are you understood the conversation because you picked up on the body language cues.  Edward T. Hall believed that at least 65% of language is based in body language and facial gestures, which allows people to understand subtext and alternative meanings attached to verbal language.  It does, however, beg the question as to how exactly in a world full of diverse spoken languages we can understand each other through our body language.  Today’s blog post covers this topic by reviewing the evidence on the universal meanings of body language.

Body language is the use of gestures, stances, and facial expressions to articulate specific intended or unintended messages.  As previously discussed in a separate blog post there is quite a bit of uniqueness to the meaning attached to specific gestures (e.g. the thumbs up or the finger curl), but there are also some universal meanings attached to certain facial expressions.  Several studies have been completed over the past few decades on several different cultural groups, and consistently there are a series of facial expressions that seem to hold universal meaning among diverse cultural groups.  The full list of the facial expressions and their meaning can be found in Table 1.

Table 1: Universally Understood Facial Expressions

Facial Expression	Meaning
Smile	Happiness
Frown	Sadness
Open Mouth	Surprise
Raised Eyebrows	Surprise
Wrinkled Nose	Disgust
Firmly Pressed Lips	Anger

What is even more interesting is that it appears that some nonhuman primates also can interpret body language among different species, including in humans.  Bonobos and chimpanzees have demonstrated an understanding of the gestures between their species, and if you have ever seen these or other apes (e.g. gorillas or orangutans) at the zoo you may have been able to interpret their happiness or sadness based on their facial expressions.  As the researchers of the nonhuman primate study suggest there may be a connection among primates that led to an evolution of the universal meaning of these facial expressions, but further study on this topic would need to be completed for such conclusions can be reached. 

Bibliography

Georgiou, A. (2018, March 7). Do humans and apes share ‘universal body language’? Newsweek.

Holler, J., & Peeters, D. (n.d.). Is Body Language Universal? Retrieved July 10, 2018, from Max Planck Institute: http://www.mpi.nl/q-a/questions-and-answers/is-body-language-universal

LiveseySolar. (2018). Cultural Differences in Body Language and Universal Facial Expressions. Retrieved July 10 , 2018, from LiveseySolar Healthcare Marketing: https://liveseysolar.com/cultural-differences-in-body-language-and-universal-facial-expressions/

Muoio, D. (2014, August 12). Body Talk: Gestures are not always universal! Retrieved July 10, 2018, from Arch Profile: http://blog.archprofile.com/archinsights/body_language_gestures

Site Author, C. (2013, March 5). Some Gestures Are Universal . Retrieved July 10, 2018, from The Only Book On Body Language That Everybody Needs To Read.: http://bodylanguageproject.com/the-only-book-on-body-language-that-everybody-needs-to-read/some-gestures-are-universal/

Vitelli, R. (2017, April 12). How Universal Is Body Language? New research suggests emotional body language may transcend culture. Retrieved July 10, 2018, from Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/media-spotlight/201704/how-universal-is-body-language

Archaeological Methods: Surveying

Figure 1: Pedestrian survey of the Don Carlos site (May 2017). 
Pictured from left: Dr. Christine E. Boston and students Victoria Spencer and Suzanne McClard Hendrickson

 

When I tell people that I am an archaeologist the most common comments I receive are concerned with what I actually find, but the reality is that what archaeologists find in the field is not as critical as finding out exactly where sites.  One should not begin an excavation without first figuring out where best to excavate.  This early step in the archaeological excavation process is what today’s blog post will focus on, which will explore the various types of archaeological surveys that exist.

An archaeological survey is the process of locating an archaeological site or potential archaeological site.  Surveys take place for many reasons, including but not limited to potential evidence of a site existing (e.g. from hearsay, historical evidence, or someone finding something of archaeological importance at a site) or as a requirement by law (particularly before public or private commercial development is to take place).  A survey does not always mean that an excavation will take place, though.  If a survey leads to no evidence of an archaeological site being present an excavation is most likely not going to happen.  This happened recently with myself and several students who were led to an area to survey based on previously discovered evidence by a farmer, but no substantive evidence discovered by our survey led to more direct evidence of an actual site existing.  Even if evidence of a site does come up through the survey one may not be able to excavate the site for one or more legitimate reasons, including lack of money, man power, safety, and permissions.     

Despite these factors surveying is an important part of the archaeological investigation.  There are actually several different types of surveys that can and do take place, and the specific type that occurs is related to the needs and/or resource availability of the archaeologists.  The most common and cost-effective type of survey is a pedestrian survey.  This entails an archaeologist or group of individuals walking across the landscape to collect and map any potential artifacts or human evidence of occupation or use (e.g. remnants of structures).  If an archaeologist is wanting to survey a large area or has some sort of environmental obstruction (e.g. forests) they might partake in an aerial survey, which means they view the landscape from above.  Typically this involved the use of an aircraft (e.g. plane, helicopter, or hot air balloon), but today it is most often completed through satellite imagery.  Several sites have been discovered through this new means, which is actually more cost effective than renting an aircraft and employing a pilot. Third type of survey is a regional survey, which involves examining several sites in any given area. This provides archaeologists with ideas of what to look for, as well as potentially provides clues of patterns within the sites themselves.

Survey is typically noninvasive.  As mentioned earlier it includes the collection of artifacts located on the ground’s surface, as well as mapping of their location (as well as mapping of any objects that cannot or should not be moved from the site) (Figure 1).  Mapping can take place through hand drawing the maps, although archaeologists have gotten more technological with their surveying and mapping techniques.  Many prefer to use Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing techniques to more accurately map a site.  Additionally, Remote Sensing technologies can be used to map what is beneath the earth’s surface without actually conducting an excavation.  This is useful when excavations cannot be completed (due to time, money, safety, or laws) or to better assist an archaeologist in determining where they should concentrate their excavation efforts.

 

While not the most glamorous part of the archaeological process it is a crucial step.  Archaeological surveys assist archaeologists in locating sites or ruling out locations that were believed to be potential archaeological sites.  They can produce some great information based on the surface collections or the remote sensing technologies used.  If you are interested in archaeology I recommend participating in a survey because they are the most common thing archaeologists will do.  To participate in such activities see if the local archaeological community has any volunteer opportunities available to you that you can join.  For students interested in working with me please feel free to reach out as I do have archaeological survey opportunities available, although they are becoming less and less frequent.  Therefore you will need to contact me asap to ensure you reserve your spot on the next surveying opportunity.  

References

Welsh, R.; Vivanco, L.; Fuentes, A.  2016.  Anthropology: Asking Questions about Human Origins, Diversity, and Culture.  Oxford University Press.

 

Hole(s) in the Head: A Discussion of Trephanation

Figure 1: The Chios Skull (Tsermoulas et al. 2014)

We typically characterize early humans as being simple, primitive, and less than intelligent creatures who were concerned with just surviving, but as we learn more and more about our human ancestors we begin to realize that they were creative, resourceful, and incredibly gifted.  From creating some of the world's earliest artworks to skillfully manipulating the dead and everything in between we, as humans, have been complex for several millennia.  Today's blog post will further demonstrate our ingenuity by discussing a long standing medical procedure that has been practiced since at least the Neolithic Period and continues on today: trephanation.

Trephination, also referred to as trepanation, is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of part of the skull through drilling, cutting, boring, or scraping, leading to the exposure of the brain, meninges, and blood vessels without damaging them (Figure 1).  This remains one of the earliest neurosurgical methods practiced, dating back to 10,000 years ago in both Europe and South America.  It was practiced widely throughout the world, with evidence being found among groups in the Middle East, Asia, and Central America, as well. 

Trephination was practiced for two primary purposes: medical or supernatural.  Medical practitioners and religious officiants would perform this procedure either to relieve an individual of pain related to cranial trauma, migraines, headaches, or other identified medical ailment or to rid an individual of demonic possession or attack if the person was exhibiting symptoms related to such matters (e.g. seizures, mental illness, etc.)  Pieces of the skull would be carefully removed during the procedure, which was practiced on adults and children regardless of sex.  This procedure was so precisely done that most individuals survived (as evidenced by healing at the incision site) and often underwent additional procedures. 

Archaeological and bioarchaeological evidence has informed scholars and modern medical doctors of the practice.  Evidence of its practice has been found on cave paintings, ceramic vessels, as well as imprinted on the bodies themselves.  The ancient Greek scholar Hippocrates chronicled the practice in his medical texts.  Because of the prolific practice of this surgical technique and its success in assisting people in surviving traumatic injuries this practice continues today, although in strictly medical capacities for the most part (although there is evidence of some individuals practicing self-trepanning for mystical purposes).  The carrying on of this practice over the centuries may have led to a refinement of the technique.  Furthermore, trephanation demonstrates the importance of not doubting the ability of any human beings, particularly those we often overlook as less capable.  Our human ancestors overcame a great deal of challenges in spite of limited options available to them, and we continue to face and beat the odds even today.     

References

Chew, L. (2000). Trephination. Retrieved from http://home.wlu.edu/~lubint/touchstone/2000/Trephination-Chew.htm

Irving, J. (2013, May 01). Trephination. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Trephination/

 

Moghaddam, N., Mailler-Burch, S., Kara, L., Kanz, F., Jackowski, C., & Losch, S. (2015). Survival after trepanation—Early cranial surgery from Late Iron Age Switzerland. International Journal of Paleopathology, 56-65.

Tsermoulas G, Aidonis A, Flint G.  2014.  The skull of Chios: trepanation in Hippocratic medicine.  J Neurosurg 121(2):328-32