That Which Goes Bump in the Night: The Archaeology of Ancient Monsters

October is the month that discussions of monsters ramp up.  All types of monsters are talked about, but very rarely does the topic of where these monsters originated enter into the conversation.  While it may appear that the topic of monsters is a fairly recent phenomenon it is actually not and one with a long history.  Monsters have fascinated human groups for centuries, and today’s blog post is devoted to discussing three ancient monsters: Medusa of the Mediterranean, the Sphinx of the Middle East, and Namahage of Asia.

Frieze of Medusa's head. 2nd century A.D. Hellenistic Temple of Apollo. (Image Source: Perseus Digital Library)

Medusa: Beauty Turned Into the Beast

The myth of Medusa is one of the oldest in the world and comes from the ancient Greeks.  There are several variations on this myth.  The common thread is that Medusa originally was a beautiful woman who spurned the goddess Athena, who punished Medusa harshly by transforming her beauty into equal measure of ugliness.  Variations exist in regards to what act specifically offended Athena.  Some myths claim that Medusa offended the goddess by allowing herself to be seduced by the god Poseidon within her sacred temple and the unholy act enraged Athena.  Other versions claim that Medusa stated she was more beautiful than the goddess within Athena’s temple, which raised her ire.   Regardless of the reason Medusa changed the beautiful Medusa into a terrifying creature described as a scaly monster with clawed hands, ragged wings, and snakes for locks of hair.  Medusa’s new image was so frightful that it was believed that to even glimpse her visage would turn the gazer into stone.  Medusa was banished to a far off island, where she was eventually vanquished by Perseus, who sought her head as payment for a debt he owed Polydectes.

The Sphinx statue in the Egyptian Desert (Image Source: http://www.guardians.net/egypt/sphinx/)

 

Sphinx: The Deal Maker

The Sphinx is best known as a colossal statue that exists in Egypt, nearby the other great pyramids that Egyptian is well known for.  The Sphinx was created by the Pharoh Khafra, who purportedly created the statue in honor of the god of the rising sun, Harmachis.  The Sphinx is an anthropomorphic creature that is made up of the head of a woman, the body of a lion, and the wings of a falcon.  It is believed to represent not just the god of the rising sun but also symbolizes power and might.  Centuries later the Sphinx had been buried under the desert sands and was rediscovered by King Thutmose IV.  It is fabled that Thutmose IV discovered the Sphinx while he was a young prince.  He got lost in the Egyptian deserts and fell asleep under a sand dune.  While he slept the Sphinx came to him in a dream and made a deal with him that he could not refuse: uncover the statue and Thutmose IV would become a great king.  Thutmose IV ordered the excavation of the Sphinx statue, and he indeed was known as a grand ruler.  The Sphinx was covered and uncovered many times over the years, and while it stands today it is currently eroding away due to natural and manmade processes.

The Sphinx was viewed favorably by the ancient Egyptians who viewed it as a symbol of the Pharaoh’s power, but to the ancient Greeks the Sphinx represented a terrible monster that reigned terror on the ancient city of Thebes.  The Sphinx sat outside the city and would not allow travelers in or out until they could correctly answer a riddle: "What goes on four legs at dawn, two legs at noon, and three legs in the evening?"  Those who failed to answer the riddle were cursed to death.  The Sphinx eventually met its end by the Greek hero Oedipus who successfully answered the riddle, which is man and the stages of life from baby to adult to elderly, and drove the Sphinx to commit suicide.
 

Man dressed as a Namahage as part of the annual ritual in Japan (Image Source: Google Images)

Namahage: The Good Ogres

Namahage are Japanese versions of ogres who have a long history of existence in Japanese culture and still hold special importance in rituals today.  The word Namahage means “red skin” or “fire burned skin” and “peeled away”, which refers to their horrifying appearance.  The Namahage are believed to reside in the mountains and come down to the coastal villages once a year around New Years to scare lazy children.  They go door to door and frightening young children who have misbehaved throughout the year.  Their parents can appease them by supplying them with food and drink.  In return the Namahage leave the children in the home and bless the households with good fortune and protect them from other demons.  The Japanese recreate this ritual annually by blessing themselves, donning a costume resembling the Namahage, and acting out their patterns of behavior as a means of blessing villagers.

Bibliography

Bayuk, A.  N.D.  Guardian’s Sphinx: Guardian of the Horizon.  Website.

Bogan, L.  N.D. Modern American Poetry: Medusa in Myth and Literary History.  Website.

Japanese National Tourism Organism.  N.D. Oga Namahage Festival.  Website.

No author.  2006.  Myth & Legends.   Website.

No author.  N.D. The Sphinx was a frightful monster who was spreading death to mankind with a cunning riddle.  Greek-Gods Info.  Website.   

No author.  N.D.  The Prince and the Sphinx.  Ancient Egypt, The Mythology.  Website.

No author.  N.D. Namahage.  Spooky Japan.  Website.

 

 

 

Something Wicked This Way Comes: A Cross Cultural Review of Mana & Taboo in Superstitions

Growing up in American culture I vividly remember being instructed by my peers not to step on cracks in sidewalks or I would fate my mother to break her back.  I, like many American children, believed this superstition because we had no reason not to, but as we grew older and gained more life experience we realized that it was not true and we walked normally, no longer avoiding cracks in the sidewalks as we went.  But why do our superfluous fears drawn from our superstitions exist?  Today’s blog post will discuss these false fears & comforts derived from superstitions through the analysis of mana & taboo in various culturally specific superstitions.

Mana is the ”belief in an imminent supernatural domain or life-force, potentially subject to human manipulation” (Gezon & Kottak, 2013).  Put simply, mana is the idea that mystical forces are imbued into specific people, animals, plants, or objects, and these mystical forces provide others who come in contact with the mana imbued person, animal, plant, or object with either good or bad luck.  Mana is also often tied to the concept of taboo, which is the prevention of completing specific acts by supernatural penalties (Gezon & Kottak, 2013).  Taboos exist to prohibit people from performing acts that will cause them bad luck, which is why it is associated with mana.

Figure 1: In the West Indies there is a superstition that dictates that individuals who have experienced terrible things burn the clothing they wore during the act so as to not continue to have bad luck.

Superstitions are a great source of cultural understandings and applications of mana and taboo.   Elements of both exist in the story mentioned above.  Mana exists in the notion that by an individual stepping on a crack they can affect the health and well-being of another individual, in this case the individual’s mother.  Taboo exists, as well, as the act of stepping on the crack is prohibited by the superstition.    

Some cultural superstitions only provide insight into mana.  For example, in Argentina it is believed that making a wish under a bridge that a train is crossing will lead to good fortune, whereas in Paraguay it is believed to enter a cemetery at night will lead to evil spirits taking over one’s body.  In the West Indies individuals who have undergone a very terrible event, such as an arrest, are instructed to burn the clothing they wore after the end of the event to avoid further bad luck (Figure 1), and in India individuals, after leaving a funeral, must bathe their bodies and clothing prior to entering the home.  All of these are examples of mana because of the acts that must be completed by the individual for the supernatural force to take effect.   

Figure 2: German superstition prohibits people from sending well wishes early.

Other cultures also have superstitions that match their cultural values and beliefs, which tie back to mana and taboo.  For example, in German culture it is considered bad luck to wish someone good luck or a happy birthday prior to the day of the event (Figure 2).  In this way mana is associated with the well wishes as an individual can say something that may affect the outcome of the event.  To ensure the outcome is not affected negatively the act of providing well wishes early is prohibited.  In Polish culture women are discouraged from leaving their purses on the floor for it is believed that by doing so they will lose money.  This superstition is similar to the one in Russia that instructs individuals not to leave empty bottles on tables or monetary losses will occur (Figure 3).  Mana is tied to the decision on where purses and bottles are placed, and the taboo encourages them not to place them on specific surfaces. 

If we delved more deeply into these cultural superstitions we would learn more about the cultural values and beliefs that exist in each culture.  The concepts of mana and taboo are easily derived from this quick analysis.  So next time you hear someone say that he or she can or cannot do something due to a specific superstition you can explain to them whether it is due mana or taboo.    

Figure 3: Empty glasses are bad omens in Russian culture.

References Cited

Gezon, L., & Kottak, C. (2013). Culture. In Culture (2nd ed., p. 30,31). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

A special thanks goes to contributors who shared stories of their culture's superstitions.  Many thanks to Mauricio Alvarez, Gabriela Brochu, Marynia Giren-Navarro, Precious Hall, Blesin Hestiyas, and Olga Katkova.  An extra special thanks goes to my mother who inspired this post and will never let me forget to never wish her an early birthday-ever (again).  :)

American Horror Stories: An Analysis of Popular American Urban Legends & What They Say About American Culture

Every culture has its own mythos and legends that members of the culture are most familiar with.  These mythos and legends are typically moral tales that guide members of the culture into good versus bad behaviors, but these mythos and legends are excellent sources of information about the culture for outsiders.  Today's blog post focuses on American urban legends and what they can tell us about American cultural norms, values, and beliefs, and because of the upcoming holiday urban legends centering around Halloween will be the primary topic of discussion.  Three urban legends will be discussed herein, and they are the legend of the poisoned Halloween candy, Bloody Mary and the rituals to summon her, and Ouija Boards.   

Image Source: Google Image Search

The Poisoned Halloween Candy

According to this urban legend children should be wary of who they receive Halloween candy from while trick-or-treating because they run the risk of acquiring poisoned treats from otherwise seemingly well-meaning citizens.  This urban legend has existed for decades.  It has led children to avoid houses of those they are unfamiliar with, as well as the carefully check their candy collections prior to consumption.   

While many may be quick to pass this urban legend off as just a cautionary tale to encourage children not to indulge in sugary treats it is unfortunately one with some truth to it.  On October 31, 1974 in Deer Park, Texas, a man named Ronald Clark O’Bryan claimed that his son, Timothy, had consumed a pixie stick that was contaminated with cyanide that he received from a neighbor while trick-or-treating that ultimately led to his death.  It was late discovered that it was Ronald Clark O’Bryan who poisoned his son with the contaminated pixie stick in order to collect insurance money.  O'Bryan had intended to poison his other child, Elizabeth O'Bryan, and several neighborhood children as a means to both collect additional insurance money on his children and to cover up his crime, but it was simple dumb luck that prevented the remaining children from meeting the same fate as Timothy O'Bryan.  Ronald O'Bryan was convicted and sentenced to death.  There have been no further incidents of poisoned candy reported since.

Despite this being an isolated incident the continued retelling of this urban legend suggests that this is an annual occurrence and that children and parents everywhere should be cautious.  So why does this urban legend continue?  Because of the moral lessons it reinforces in children.  One of the biggest lessons every American child learns early in life is the one about "stranger danger" or to be cautious of strange adults who approach them as they are most likely dangerous to the child.  This urban legend reinforces that lesson by informing children that even on the most fun nights danger still lurks and exists and is after them.  This urban legends also demonstrates Americans' distrust of others, particularly the unknown individuals, which is a pervasive value in American urban culture and somewhat in rural culture.

Mary Worth, aka Bloody Mary (Image Source: Skyberry-13)

Blood Mary

Bloody Mary is a game that many children and teenagers opt to play throughout the year but particularly during the Halloween season.  This game involves an individual (typically a young girl) standing in front a mirror in a completely dark room.  The individual then says the name "Bloody Mary" or some variant chant involving the name three times.  This is supposed to conjure the presence of "Bloody Mary", a woman with nefarious motivations who will eventually cause harm against the individual who called her forth.

The origins of this urban legend are unknown, probably because of the number of versions that exist of this tale.  Some versions describe "Bloody Mary" as a woman known as Mary Worth who is described as a witch who was punished and therefore curses those who call her name, while other incarnations identify "Bloody Mary" as an innocent woman who was the victim of a horrific car accident.  This latter version is not as popular and very rarely recited, and it is the witch urban legend that is most popular.

But why is it that in America, a land that largely identifies as a "Christian nation", a tale of a witch is so popular?  Because of the values that this urban legend puts forward to those who listen and heed its warning.  This legend tells young individuals, particularly young girls, that witchcraft is both dangerous and unwelcome and that practitioners of the "dark arts" are punished.  We see this both in the punishment of the individuals who recite "Bloody Mary"'s name and in "Bloody Mary" herself, who is described as a punished witch.  The purpose of this urban legend is to frighten young individual into fearing witchcraft and to avoid it at all costs.

Ouija Board (Parker Brothers Games)

The Ouija Board

Another popular Halloween tradition is the breaking out of the Ouija board.  This board is believed to be a conduit to the spiritual world, which is easiest to contact on Halloween, and people use the Ouija board to communicate with the dead.  Several urban legends surround the use of the Ouija board, and many maintain that the use of the Ouija board causes hauntings by vengeful spirits.

The use of the Ouija board begins at the end of the 19th century when the Kennard Novelty Company first began manufacturing and selling the now infamous "talking board".  The name Ouija actually is a made up word that combines the French word "Oui" (yes) and the German word "ja" (yes), but it was believed to be mysterious and catchy enough for the American public, which was in the throws of the Spiritualist Movement.  The Spiritualist Movement centered on the notion of communicating with the deceased, and it saw an increase in the number of seances, mediums, etc. who were available and employed by American citizens.  The Kennard Novelty Company capitalized on this fervor in their creation of the Ouija board, which was merely meant to be an entertaining game to satisfy the public's desire to "speak with the dead".

As the years went on and American public views changed to shunning death and the dead the Ouija board took on a new image, which was popularized throughout the 1970s and the rise of the horror movie.  The Ouija board was the source of several scary plots of horror movies from the period and even today.  These are in part responsible for the change in perception of the Ouija board from simple family friendly game to horrific tool to summon unwelcoming spirits.

So why the change in attitude?  Well, as previously identified, the change in attitude toward the Ouija board relates specifically to the cultural change in the views of death and the deceased.  As Americans lost interest in Spiritualism and viewed death as a scary, unwelcoming event so did their appetite for the entities and items associated with it.  All things previously popularized by the Spiritualist Movement eventually became scary and unwelcoming, which mirrors the American public view that death is unacceptable. 

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As demonstrated by these examples mythos and legends provide a great deal of insights into culture, and these examples of American urban legends are no exception.  We can trace changes in American culture through the history of the Ouija board.  We can also gain a better understanding and insight into present cultural values through the poisoned Halloween candy and Bloody Mary urban legends.  So next time you hear about an American urban legend (or any mythos or legend from another culture) think about what norms, values, and beliefs are imbued in it, and see if you can identify specific cultural elements conveyed in them.


Bibliography



Museum of Talking Boards

Newspaper Headline 1    
Newspaper Headline 2
The History of Blood Mary 
The Hoax Project
The Legend of Bloody Mary 
The Strange and Mysterious History of the Ouija Board