Explaining Genotypes & Phenotypes Big Bang Style

This post is a continuation of a previous post, which introduced the topic of genetics.  Today’s post picks up on a topic that was not fully addressed in the previous post: more specific information on genes and alleles.  I wanted to discuss this topic separately and more in depth as students sometimes have a difficult time grasping this concept, warranting a separate post providing the necessary detail for students. 

As previously discussed, genes, or biological information that codes for specific traits, are passed down from parents to offspring.  Offspring get two sets of genes, one from each parent.  The genetic composition of an organism is known as its genotype, whereas the physical appearance that is derived from this genetic composition is known as the phenotype.  But as genes come in pairs, and there are many different variants of genes, referred to as alleles, how exactly does the body figure out its physical appearance from these genes?  From reading the genes present in the genotype and determining which are dominant and which are recessive.

Figure 1: Penny's Boyfriend

Figure 2: Penny's Neighbors

 Dominant and recessive genes are terms used to identify how much power genes have in expressing themselves.  Dominant genes will always express themselves, whereas recessive alleles will not express themselves in the presence of dominant alleles but will express themselves if no dominant genes are present.  One way to think of these concepts is to think of dominant and recessive alleles like characters from the popular television show, The Big Bang Theory.  Dominant genes are the big jock boyfriends Penny used to date early in the series-they are strong, overpowering, and get Penny’s attention (Figure 1), whereas the recessive genes are Penny’s geeky neighbors-they are quiet, meek, socially awkward, and do not get Penny’s attention (Figure 2).  When Penny’s boyfriend and neighbor meet in the show the jock boyfriend (dominant gene) controls and overpowers the geeky neighbors (recessive genes) (Figure 3).  This same concept applies when a dominant and recessive gene end up in a gene pair together, except that genes do not beat each other up as the characters in the show do.  The dominant gene is the one that we phenotypically see in the overall appearance of the organism.  In real life, an example of this would be if a dominant brown eye gene and a recessive blue eye gene are paired together in an organism.  In this case, the organism will phenotypically express the brown eye gene despite carrying a blue eye gene, too.

Figure 3: Penny's Dominant Boyfriend Overtaking the Recessive Neighbor, thereby demonstrating what occurs in a heterozygous genotype.

This scenario that I just described, where a dominant and recessive gene is together in a gene pair, is called a heterozygous genotype.  Hetero is a Greek root that means different (e.g. heterosexual) and signifies when two genes of different strengths (one dominant and one recessive) are grouped together.  But what happens if two dominant genes or two recessive alleles are grouped together?  This situation is referred to as a homozygous genotype.  Homo is a Greek root that means same (e.g. homosexual) and signifies two genes of the same strength being grouped together (e.g. two dominant genes or two recessive genes) (Figure 4).  Phenotypically (appearance wise), this situation will show both genes-be it dominant or recessive-if the genes are the same.  When we identify these situations, we refer to individuals as being homozygous dominant (having two of the same dominant genes) or homozygous recessive (having two of the same recessive genes).  

Figure 4: Homozygous traits demonstrate the same phenotypic traits as is demonstrated by all the incarnations of Penny from the Big Bang Theory.

In some cases, however, if there are two different dominant alleles, both may equally show itself, a situation known as codominance (Figure 5).  In real life, this happens with the blood type AB, with the A and B genes both being dominant and both showing equal strength in expression.  No such situation exists for two recessive alleles because if two different recessive genes come together then one will take on a dominant role (e.g. if a blue and green eye genes are together in a gene pair, one will be phenotypically expressed).  These genes can only phenotypically being expressed when an organism is homozygous recessive (e.g. two recessive blue eye genes will produce a blue eyed organism).

Figure 5: Codominance as demonstrated by Penny and Sheldon of The Big Bang Theory.  Both characters are dressed as Wonder Woman and both are equally shown in this depiction.

Spotlight on Students: Focal Vocabulary

This post features the work of my Anthropology 101 students.  They are discussing the intricacies of focal language of specific groups they are familiar with.  I will save the details of what exactly that means to them and their exemplary work.

Image Source: www.beer100.com

 
Focal Language of Home Beer Brewers
By: Brian Ball

Every culture relies on communication through language to share and expand upon ideas, thus facilitating interaction with a constantly growing variety of concepts, beliefs and opinions. In reading Chapter 4 of Culture, Second Edition, I learned that throughout the world there are groups of individuals who have formed their own cultures and have thus found the need to utilize unique words and phrases to better communicate specialized knowledge important to members of their groups, which is commonly known in anthropology as focal language or a focal vocabulary. As defined in our text, focal vocabulary is “A set of words and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups (those with particular foci of experience or activity), such as types of snow to Eskimos or skiers” (Kottak, Gezon 66). Recently, I have begun to study and practice the hobby of home brewing and much like a non-skiing American spending time immersed in an Inuit community, I have found myself learning an entirely new lexicon to describe the actions and information used in the practice of brewing beer. Amongst brewers, I have learned that focal language is extremely important in effectively communicating the actions one takes in the brewing process and in better understanding how to improve the craft through which one brews. In using this brewing lexicon outside of the presence of brewers, I have also seen how quickly non-group members are identified and confused, and how the focal language of brewing reinforces group membership and non-membership alike.

            To better understand the focal language of brewers, I have compiled a list of several terms which are either completely unique to brewing or have a distinctive meaning within the realm of brewing that is different from the word’s common definition, such as “adjunct”, “barrel” and “cask”. These “ABC’s of brewing” are best defined as, “Fermentable material used as a substitute for traditional grains, to make beer lighter-bodied or cheaper” (BeerAdvocate), “A unit of measurement used by brewers in some countries … In the United States, a barrel holds 31.5 US gallons (1 US gallon = 3.8 liters), or 1.17 hectoliters” (BeerAdvocate) and “A closed, barrel-shaped container for beer” (BeerAdvocate), respectively. Moving through the list alphabetically, brewers will often utilize terms such as “decoction”, “ester” and “grist”, which can be defined correspondingly as an “Exhaustive system of mashing in which portions of the wort are removed, heated, then returned to the original vessel” (BeerAdvocate), “Volatile flavor compound naturally created in fermentation. Often fruity, flowery or spicy” (BeerAdvocate) and “milled grains, or the combination of milled grains to be used in a particular brew. Derives from the verb to grind. Also sometimes applied to hops.” (BeerAdvocate). Some other favorites of mine are “IBU”, which is an acronym for “International Bitterness units. A system of indicating the hop bitterness in finished beer” (BeerAdvocate), “mash tun”, which is “A tank where grist is soaked in water and heated in order to convert the starch to sugar and extract the sugars and other solubles from the grist” (BeerAdvocate), and “pitch”, which is simply defined as, “To add yeast to wort” (BeerAdvocate). One term used in several of the prior definitions is “wort”, which is defined as, “The solution of grain sugars strained from the mash tun. At this stage, regarded as "sweet wort", later as brewed wort, fermenting wort and finally beer” (BeerAdvocate). As I imagine any non-member of this group would be able to see, these terms are somewhat technical and do not have much of a place outside of the brewer’s vocabulary.

            When looking closer at the use of focal language by brewers, it becomes clear that it is very important to the group. Without the use of exclusive terms related to brewing, I can imagine that brewers would be spending a vastly larger amount of time explaining which step in the process they are referring to than they do when using these terms. As a novice brewer myself, I can already see a vast difference in the time it takes for me to comprehend and explain ideas to other group members now as compared to a year ago when I had just begun. It is the difference between a concise, well thought out statement and one that requires paragraphs of explanation. I believe that the purpose of utilizing focal language amongst brewers is a logical progression in moving from a time where those who were brewing beer had no precise terms to describe specifics of the process to a time of being able to quickly relate to complex ideas and nuances. In my opinion, the use of focal language affords brewers more control over the entire process, allows them to easily acquire and share knowledge between one another and provides the means to effectively troubleshoot any difficulties they may encounter along the way. The lexicon of brewers is more than simply a collection of words with meanings attached to them; it is a language that facilitates intellectual advancement and stimulates artistic endeavors beyond the fathomable.

            Prior to brewing my first batch of beer, I had heard many of these brewer-specific terms from my father who is also a home brewer, but I had never taken the time to fully understand their meanings or individual relationships to the process. Being confused by these terms when speaking with other brewers was natural, but this confusion was a feeling that compelled me to ask more questions in order to better understand the process. Something that I believe is unique to brewers in general is that they are seemingly always open to taking the time to explain the process of brewing to those who are uneducated on the topic. I believe that brewers are a fine example of a group that will easily confuse non-group members with their focal language, but at the same time will offer all that they can in terms of information to encourage and welcome new members to the group. At first this came to me as a surprise, but now I can see that it is simply part of what it means to be associated with the group: sharing knowledge freely amongst one another for nothing more than the love of beer.

          I believe that the information and examples contained above have provided me with an approachable way to better understand what roles language and communication play in culture. I also believe that any of my peers performing this assignment would also likely take away similar learning lessons, such as being able to better identify cultural groups through the terms used in their language and appreciating the importance and purpose of utilizing focal language. Knowing now that focal language plays an integral role in both separating and bringing together members and non-members of different cultures, I can clearly see that through its use, groups are able to form strong identities for themselves and their group members as well as differentiate their group from others. Focal language to me now has a meaning beyond the textbook definition; one that I see as an essential component in establishing culture.

 Works Cited

“Beer & Brewing Terminology.” BeerAdvocate. N.p, n.d. Web. 13 July 2014.

Boston, Christine. "Linguistics Assignment." TMCC WebCollege. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 July 2014.

Gezon, Lisa L., and Conrad Phillip. Kottak. Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. Kindle.

 

Jay Cutler, Bodybuilder

Focal Language of Bodybuilders
By: James Puccinelli

 

Bodybuilding has a culture similar to many different Northern American born cultures with a unique focal language, a set of words and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups (those with particular foci of experience or activity) (Gezon and Kottak), that can be intimidating if not understood properly. A non-gym goer may expect to hear more anatomical terms involving various muscle groups rather than a focal language. They would expect muscular guys and fit girls to be talking about biceps and abs, which is not the case really. With the adaptations of the Internet, bodybuilding has become somewhat of a nerd like obsession for some. Every year the Mr. Olympia (Joe Weider's Olympia Fitness Performance Weekend) competition is held in Las Vegas, which serves as the largest event in the bodybuilding world. Attached is the Olympia expo that serves as the largest bodybuilding convention in the world. Together they are known as the Olympia Weekend. The competition has various classes and categories judging competitors on a variety of different aspects on their physique. A similar competition/expo is the Arnold (Arnold Sports Festival), created by Arnold Schwarzenegger.

                                                                                  

Bodybuilding is one of the many cultures created by the fitness industry. Other fitness cultures might include but not limited to crossfit, powerlifting, tough mudder, go ruck, and bootcampers to name a few. Each culture has its own unique set of principles, but some terms are interchanged between one another. The terminology that has developed in the world of bodybuilding over the years may come off as a series of unfamiliar words and lingo that leaves someone baffled as to what the two big guys at the gym may be talking about. Here is a list of ten of the top terms researched from bodybuilding.com (Lapray, 2013) with their definitions:

·         Broscience: Anecdotal evidence of something to aid in making an exercise more successful in the gym that is deemed as science. Basically when someone who has no scientific background but a lot of gym experience says the way they train is “science.” A broscientist thinks his analogies of his workouts and how he expresses them to his peers is considered science when there is generally not any scientific research to back the claims being made. An example, “Hey bro! You need to get that protein in your diet bro! It’s just science bro.”

·         Diet: To most this is a term for starving yourself of food as a means to lose weight. In bodybuilding lore it is the macronutrient amounts a bodybuilder eats on a daily basis in order to achieve that huge ripped up physique. Usually these are astronomical amounts of protein and based foods and are usually double what any nutritionist would recommend.

·         Set: A series of repetitive motions done to exercise a certain muscle group. An example, “I just did four sets of dumbbell curls.”

·         Failure: Not to imply quitting or not succeeding at life. Failure refers to momentary muscular failure from a given exercise. An example, “on my last set of bench I went to failure.”

·         Max: The maximum weight amount in pounds a person can lift for one rep. An example, “I maxed on squats at 415lb.”

·         Rep: One repetition in a set. Usually performed in a rigorous motion repetitively for a given number. An example, “I did 12 reps on the bench press.”

·         ‘Mirin: A term short for admiring, as in you get caught looking at the hot girl/guy in the gym you are ‘mirin them. It does not have to be restricted to sexual attraction. Someone can be ‘mirin based on the type or intensity of a workout, the new Nike shoes they have, or how many rep they did on their last set.

·         Newb: Similar to the newb tern used in gaming, it means someone who is new to fitness and weightlifting. An example, “I wish this newb would get off the smith machine.”

·         Spot: Having someone support your body on a heavy exercise ensuring safety for the person undergoing the said exercise. An example, “He asked me for a spot on the bench press.”

·         Plateau: Not the giant mountain-like step in the middle of nowhere, but a term used to describe when someone has reached a stagnate point in an exercise or training in general. It can be in terms of weight, reps, bodyweight, or body fat percentage. An example, “I have plateaued on my deadlifts at 315 lbs. for 5 reps.” Depicts a slowing down or stopping point.

                                                                                  

The focal language used in the world of bodybuilding is useful to the average bodybuilder mainly because it enables fellow bodybuilders to converse with one another more openly and relate to one another while picking up useful bits of information and training techniques. Basically, it helps to depict the average gym goer from the hardcore lifter. The terms listed mainly enable bodybuilders alike to become better at what they do and succeed at all areas. Whether it is for competition, gym bragging rights, or to just fit in with the fit crowd, it starts with the lingo.

Non-bodybuilders may feel like some of the terms used are a simpleton slang that mimics the grunts and groans of cavemen. For whatever reason, bodybuilders fall into a stereotype that depicts them as huge, simple-minded people that are generally very unintelligent. Majority of the gym jargon listed above are one-syllable words, hence maybe why when the average person looks at them like they are some sort of prehistoric caveman babbling about nothing.

In conclusion, builders tend to be misunderstood by an outsider to the culture. When someone wants to get in great shape and seek out the help of someone within the bodybuilding community, a lot of the time they will not understand why they do the things they do. There must be an easier, less time consuming way to get into perfect shape. As any fellow bodybuilder will tell you, “Bodybuilding is not a quick fix, it’s a lifestyle.”

Bibliography

Arnold Sports Festival. (n.d.). Expo. (Classic Productions) Retrieved June 4th, 2014, from Arnold Sports Festival: http://arnoldsportsfestival.com/expo/

Gezon and Kottak (2^nd Ed.) 2014.  Culture. McGraw Hill.

Joe weider's Olympia Fitness Performance Weekend. (n.d.). MR Olympia. (J. W.   Olympia, Producer) Retrieved June 4th, 2014, from mrolympia.com:  http://mrolympia.com/2014/history/index

Lapray, D. (2013, March). Lifting Lingo Made Easy. (BodyBuilding.com, LLC)     Retrieved June 4th, 2014, from BodybBuilding.com: http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/lifting-lingo-made-easy-learn-the-words-lift-the-life.html

Brett Martin, Video Game Enthusiast

Focal Language of Video Gamers
By: Chelsey Smith

Focal language is a set of words and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups (Gezon and Kottak, 2014). One particular group that utilizes focal language is gamers. A gamer is an individual who frequently plays video games. Gamers have developed their own Internet-based subculture and thus their own vocabulary to go with it (Gezon and Kottak, 2014). Through this vocabulary they have given each other somewhere to belong.

            

The focal vocabulary of gamers is vast but here are ten of the most commonly used terms and their definitions:

●       Pwned - Derives from a misspelling of the word “owned.” When a player says “I pwned you,” it means that they have beaten you badly.

●       Kill Streak - To be on a kill streak is to kill many opponents in a row before being killed yourself.

●       Camper - A player that hides out in one place, waiting for a chance to kill someone unsuspectingly.

●       Noob - Someone who is either inexperienced or just not very good at gaming.

●       Hacker - Someone that hacks a console or game to gain an unfair advantage.

●       Easter Egg - Hidden content in a game.

●       Frag - To kill someone with a bomb.

●       Handle - The name a gamer uses in a forum or online match.

●       Lag - A slow down during a online match due to bad servers or bad connection

●       Walkthrough - A game guide that gives you all you need to know about a game and how to play it

(Gezon and Kottak, 2014; Community.us.playstation.com, 2008).

            

 I believe the importance behind gamers having focal language is a sense of community. Gamers are typically proud of whom they are and gaming is a big part of their world. Gamers from all over the world can connect with each other through this vocabulary that is unique to their world of gaming. It gives the gamers that know these words and term a sense of belonging and acceptance.

            

One purpose behind gamers having focal language is the need for concentration while in the middle of an ongoing game. For example, if a player were to instead say the entire definition of one of these terms, that player might then become distracted and end up giving a point to the other team by being killed. Instead the gamers have come up with shorter phrases and acronyms so that they can quickly give an order to teammates or warn them without losing concentration. Another purpose is needing a name for unique actions that do not typically happen outside of a video game. For example, the term “camper” refers to a player that is hiding out and waiting for another player to pass by so that they can kill them without being spotted first. This is not necessarily something that happens in everyday life so there is no existing term for such an action.

An outsider definitely would be confused by much of the gamer vocabulary. As the sister of an avid gamer I now know some of the most popular terms, but the first few times that I decided to join in I was a little lost whenever hearing the other players talk to each other. Video games are not my forte so I very quickly was dubbed as a “noob,” which I later discovered is a rather derogatory term for an inexperienced or bad player. Admitting to not knowing any of the terms listed above would almost certainly get you labeled as a “noob” also. Being able to comprehend and reciprocate the vocabulary of the gamers would identify you as a group member. Having this “special language” is a way of reinforcing that group membership.

Gamers tend to frequently be made fun of, but the way that they have come up with their own way of communicating with each other is pretty special. Having a place where you can freely be yourself and know that you will be accepted for who you are is not something to take for granted. Bullying is never acceptable and I hope that through the connections made through online gaming and the use of focal language, the gamers have found a place to belong and realize that it is always okay to be who you are.

                                                     Bibliography

Community.us.playstation.com, (2008). Gaming Slang and Sayings [Over 100 Words!] - PlayStation® Forums. [online] Available at: http://community.us.playstation.com/t5/PlayStation-Lounge/Gaming-Slang-and-Sayings-Over-100-Words/td-p/10022149 [Accessed 12 Jun. 2014].

Gezon, L. and Kottak, C. (2014). Culture. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, p.66.