Dumpster Diving: Looting and Losing Our Past (Part 2 of 3)

This post is a continuation of the "Dumpster Diving" series that I started over a month ago.  Today's installment focuses on the very real effects of looting archaeological sites and the illicit antiquities trade.  This post will discuss what exactly looting is, the costs to the discipline of archaeology, the costs to the public, and how you can help in ending the illicit antiquities trade.

First, in order to understand the effects of looting, one must first understand what exactly looting is.  Looting is the unscientific and nonarchaeological removal of artifacts and cultural heritage items from archaeological/cultural heritage sites and/or museums.  Looting does not have to occur by an individual in possession of the artifact or cultural heritage item but can occur by others who are known to be the possessor of the artifact or item.  Individuals who purchase looted items are still participating in looting as they are the consumers of looted products and fuel the illicit antiquities trade.

Many individuals who participate in looting may not be aware of their role, particularly as cultural norms and values vary and often do not frown upon such acts, but there are some very real and negative consequences of looting that do affect everyone: archaeologists and the public at large.  Archaeologists are affected by looting, particularly of actively excavated sites, because they lose potential information concerning the culture they are studying.  This loss of information robs the archaeologist(s) of fulling understanding the past, which can cause misinterpretations of past cultures.  These misinterpretations of culture and loss of our cultural past do not just affect archaeology but deprive the public of understanding the past.  There is also a loss of cultural identity for groups that claim affiliation with the past culture under exploration.  This consequence may not seem like it is a big deal, but it really is, particularly in cases where that history is necessary to verify land claims, legitimize cultural identity, or produce a better understanding of one's cultural identity caused by cultural loss.  

Due to the public's appetite for "ancient artifacts", many looters have taken to purposefully copying artifacts that they find.  These copies are often indistinguishable from the original, ancient or historical artifacts.  I met a looter once who admitted that he had gotten so good at copying archaeologically local arrowheads that even he could not tell the difference between his copies and the originals he stole.  These imitations are often sold as real, which he admitted to me he consistently did, and they pollute the "market" and record with inaccurate information about the past.  Because of these inaccuracies, archaeologists are ethically required not to study or analyze artifacts from looted contexts because these artifacts cannot be verified as real or faked.  The studying of faked artifacts risks producing inaccurate and/or misinterpreted information about past groups, which leads to the same problems mentioned in the previous paragraph.  

Acts of looting negatively affect archaeologists and the public alike because these are illegal activities and therefore the perpetrators have no problem participating in other illegal acts, such as murder or terrorism.  Several years ago, it came across the archaeological listserves that an archaeologist was killed in Peru by a looter.  The archaeologist was simply walking the grounds of the archaeological site, surveying the area for future excavations, when she was shot to death by a looter who was terrified of being turned in.  This risk is present for the general public, as well, at various archaeological sites around the world, as well.  Visitors to the site of Chan-Chan in Peru are warned by the Site Employees not to deviate from the route on the map they are given as due to the potential for running into a "huaquero" and potentially falling victim to a very serious crime, including but not limited to murder.  

In addition, the illicit antiquities trade has been linked to funding acts of terrorism (Art As Financing for Terrorists?, Der Spiegel, 2005).  It was reported that one of the 9/11 hijackers sold "ancient artifacts" in order to fund his terrorism efforts.  The illicit antiquities trade has also be linked to other serious crimes, such as drug trafficking.  As previously mentioned, many of those who participate in looting activities also participate in other illegal activities, and the scale of these activities is poorly understood at this time due to the covert nature of all illegal activities.

What can you do in order to assist in stopping looting and the illicit antiquities trade?  There are many things you can do, and these acts range from small to big, simple to more complex.  A small and simple act is to NOT participate in the purchasing of "ancient artifacts".  Many people believe that they are "saving the artifact" or "rescuing the past" by purchasing it.  Once the artifact is removed from its original context in an unscientific manner, it is considered lost, and little to nothing can be done to save it.  Save your money and do more good by not providing the market with consumers, which is believed to be one of the best ways of ending the illicit antiquities trade.

Another way to assist in this problem is become educated on your local history and area, as well as about the effects of looting, and, in turn, educate individuals around you about the real costs of looting.  

Patronize museums and institutions that ethically acquire artifacts and cultural heritage items.  Do not support or visit museums and institutions that do not participate in ethical research, excavations, or research.  

Support campaigns against looting.  Many local sites have anti-looting campaigns and initiatives associated with them, providing you a local resource to participate in.  There are also larger organizations, such as SAFE, that address looting issues at a global scale.  SAFE has several opportunities for individuals wishing to participate, ranging from public lectures to internships.  

Ultimately, every small step against the illicit antiquities trade will help in resolving this and the related issues described herein.  Believing that you can make a difference, no matter how small or how large, is the first and most profound step in ending looting.  Coming together, each and everyone of us, can and will make a difference in ending looting and the illicit antiquities trade.

ADDENDUM (5/31/13): My friend's husband is currently excavating in Peru, and he posted the following about his excavation: The Loot Fairy.  It is very appropriate to this post and couldn't have been better timed.

Applying Anthropology

This post is dedicated to SS 310 students but is also accessible to the wider audience.

Applied anthropology refers to the application of anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and methods to identify, assess, and solve social problems (Gezon and Kottak, 2012).  Anthropology is a dynamic field that focuses on the study of humans from biological and cultural perspectives, making it a fantastic field for assisting humans around the world.  As well, it provides anthropologists an additional avenue of applying their methods to situations that are nonacademic, which many anthropologists find more fulfilling than just solely academic pursuits. 

Today's post is dedicated to applied anthropology.  To this end, the following are links to various articles and resources about applied anthropology, which is meant to give you, the reader, an idea of what applied anthropologists are doing:

Anthropologists Sell Vodka (Applied Anthropology in Business)

Cultural Resource Management & Rediscovering History Lost

Anthrotech & Applied Anthropometry

 The Need for Anthropologists in Policy Making

JPAC & Making the Lost Found Again

 Reference:

Gezon, L and C Kottak.  2012.  Culture.  McGraw-Hill.   

Anthropology in the News

A sad day for Maya archaeologists: Mayan Ruins Bulldozed for Road Construction Purposes

Any ladies up to having a Neanderthal baby?  C-section strongly suggested: Neanderthal baby clone may be imminent

Minoan Mystery Solved!  And it wasn't by Sherlock Holmes: Minoan & European Links

Shakespearean fans rejoice: The King has been found!  King Richard III Discovered!

How to Think like an Anthropologist: The Pitfalls of Ethnocentrism and the Advantages of Cultural Relativism

This post is specifically written for SS 3310 students, but it is open to all blog readers.

As anthropology is the study of humans from both a cultural and biological perspective, anthropologists are confronted with different human groups and their cultures, many of which are completely different from his/her own.  Confrontations with any thing new and different, particularly cultures, can evoke a variety of reactions: shock, awe, amazement, fear, joy, excitement, and judgement.  These reactions are typical and normal.  They can reinforce our personal pride in our own cultural heritage, which is a positive thing, but these reactions can also be quite negative if they generate feelings of superiority and discrimination against other cultures.  This type of reaction, known as ethnocentrism (the tendency to view one's own culture as best and to judge the behavior and beliefs of culturally different people by one's own standards, Gezon & Kottak, 2012), is one that anthropologists must continually battle when producing value free and objective research of human groups.

To assist with objectivity in anthropological research, anthropologists must strive to be culturally relativistic, which means that they must take the position that the values and standards of cultures differ and deserve respect (Gezon & Kottak, 2012).  This perspective allows anthropologists, and any individuals who subscribe to this point of view, the ability to judge each culture on its own merits.  This point of view is integral to the study of anthropology as it recognizes that there is no universally recognized morality and there is no single superior culture any where in the world.   

Reaching a culturally relativistic point of view is not easy and one that must be continually worked toward on a daily basis and through multiple confrontations with cultures that are vastly different from our own.  But the benefits of being more culturally relativistic are great.  In today's post, we are going to look at one situation and discuss how it is typically viewed from an ethnocentric perspective and how utilizing the cultural relativistic perspective assists in understanding the cultural practice, culture, and people.

What are your thoughts and/or reactions to the image below?

This woman is wearing a hijab, which is a veil that Muslim women who have reached the age of puberty wear while in the company of nonmale relatives.  It is meant to be a symbol of modesty, which is stressed in the Qur'an.  The wearing of a hijab is not required and is not worn by all Muslim women, but it is popularly worn by many Muslim women, particularly Eastern European and Middle Eastern women, as part of their cultural standards.

There are a lot of negative reactions out there in regards to women who opt to wear the hijab.  Some Western countries and areas have deemed it illegal for women to wear the hijab.  I had an old roommate once loudly exclaim in a store at a woman who wore a hijab, "Why do you let men control you like this by wearing that gross thing over your head?!"  In general, many non-Muslims cannot understand why Muslim women wear the hijab as it's seen a symbol of submissiveness and subjugation of women to men by Westerners, which is an ethnocentric reaction based on our Western values. 

So why exactly do Muslim women wear the hijab?  Because it is a symbol of modesty, and in their culture, it is important that women be modest in lifestyle and appearance.  Part of that modesty is that women be covered up, including their hair, so as not to be looked at in a lustful manner by men.  One way to look at it is to think about the message conveyed in this political cartoon:

    
As a woman, I can attest to the fact that no matter what I wear (be it a turtle neck and a business suit or a skirt and top), I will usually get at least one man addressing me by not looking me in the eye but leering at my chest, hips, or butt.  It's incredibly unnerving and disrespectful, in my opinion.  And I can understand why Muslim women would opt to wear the hijab.  But the point was driven home for me after I had a conversation with an elderly Canadian woman who had just converted to Islam and started wearing the hijab 6 months previous to our conversation.  I asked her why she opted to wear the hijab, particularly since she grew up during the 1960s & 1970s and the "Feminist Revolution" and was enculturated in Canadian/Western cultural norms and values.  She had the following to say:  

"For the first time in my life I finally feel like I am a human being when I talk to a man.  When I wear the hijab, men are forced to look me in the eye, not direct the conversation toward my breasts.  I have never felt that level of respect in my life, and I have been on this earth for over 50 years!"   

By divorcing oneself from their own cultural values and putting oneself into the place of the other individual (in this case, the position of a Muslim woman), one can begin to understand why the hijab is a necessity in their wardrobe and a valued choice that they make on a daily basis as part of their culture that values women's modesty.  As well, Western men and women can learn something from this situation in regards to our (Western) cultural values, be it positive or negative.   

References:
  
Gezon, L and C Kottak.  2012.  Culture.  McGraw-Hill.  
 

Sticks, Stones, and Not so Broken Bones: What to Do When Confronted With Abandoned Cemeteries

This post came about due to an inquiry from a student regarding the discovery of an abandoned cemetery in her community.  She was concerned about the cemetery and inquired as to what could be done to protect the cemetery and the deceased individuals.  The following is information pertinent to that and similar inquiries I have received over the years.

American society dictates that once one has passed on they must be put to rest in a cemetery.  Mortuary rituals vary by culture, but in general, Americans silent mourn death and discreetly bury the deceased in specified areas known as cemeteries.  This tradition has one that has lasted several centuries and for the most part this practice has worked.  But several cemeteries, particularly family plots and pioneer cemeteries, are forgotten or neglected and they fall into disrepair.  Several questions come up when someone acquires property with a cemetery on it or when someone finds a cemetery and wishes to restore it out of respect for the dead.  So what can be done if you stumble upon a cemetery that is not currently being taken care of?

State laws pertaining to cemeteries vary, but there is federal legislation that is cited in regards to these types of situations.  Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 is reported as having information pertaining to the protection of historic property and cultural resources (Illinois, 2008, see link at end of post), and historic cemeteries may fall within the jurisdiction of this legislation.  As well, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) may also apply depending on the type of cemetery that is encountered.  The name implies that the legislation only covers Native American burial grounds, but the legislation has been expanded to include most burials.  One should practice extreme caution and consult all federal legislations regarding cemeteries before making decisions regarding the removal or relocation of any cemetery if that is something one is considering.  One may also wish to consult these legislations in the case of wanting to preserve the cemetery.

The state of Illinois residents who are concerned about a burial ground or cemetery should consult a representative of the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency.  This agency should be consulted in the event of a request to relocate a cemetery, as well as in order to register a cemetery for the purposes of granting it a historic designation and all applicable protections.

In the event that human remains are uncovered-be they in a cemetery context or not-the same advice applies according to all sources: CALL THE POLICE, who will call the Coroner.  This procedure must be followed in the event that there is an illegal action that took place, and even if no illegal action has taken place, the Coroner has the authority to adequately and respectfully deal with the remains.  If necessary, the Coroner will call in a licensed Forensic Anthropologist, but those decisions are at the discretion of the Coroner's Office, local law enforcement, and any applicable state or federal agency.

Throughout my academic career, people have approached me to identify bones that they have found.  I usually don't mind doing this identification because often times the bones are animal bones.  I do, however, get concerned when someone approaches me with a bone, followed by a question along the lines of, "Is this human?"  Please, please, please, if you ever come across a bone and you think it may be human, IMMEDIATELY CALL THE POLICE!  The police are trained to deal with these types of situations, even if the bone(s) in question is/are not human.  It is much better to be cautious and let the police assess the situation first instead of having to negotiate what will become a very awkward situation in the event that that bone(s) is/are human.  If the bone is not human, the police, after consulting the proper experts, will let you know and they may even have an answer for you as to what the bone is.

If you have any further questions regarding protecting cemeteries, please consult your local state preservation agency.  Illinois residents can consult the following manual published by the state of Illinois: Illinois, 2008.

Global Perspectives of Mother's Day

In honor of the upcoming holiday, I wanted to take a moment to discuss Mother's Day.  This holiday is a popular one not only in the USA but all over the world with every country practicing some form of Mother's Day.  There are some fundamental differences, however, as not every country celebrates it on the same day (several countries and cultures celebrate it in March) or in similar fashions.  The following are some ways that Mother's Day is celebrated cross-culturally:

• In the United States and Western Europe, breakfast in bed or a special Mother's Day brunch are popular ways of showing moms appreciation.  Store bought or home made cards are also quite popular.  Mother's Day is quite commercialized, as are many other holidays.
  
  
• The country of India has only begun celebrating Mother's Day, with the holiday growing in popularity over the last decade, as a result of globalization and the appropriation of the holiday.  Mothers have a special place in Indian society, and the holiday is used to provide mother's a break from their domestic duties.  Meals are made and cards purchased for mothers, and the commercialized fervor present in North America is quickly catching on in India as the Indian media hypes up the holiday.
  
• Mother's Day in Ireland has a very long history, dating back to Medieval times when Mothering Sunday was celebrated.  Children who were sent away to acquire work or educations in trades were able to visit with their mothers once a year, and while the custom fell out of favor for a long period of time, it was revitalized and transformed after World War II.  Today, mothers are lavished with flowers, cards, dinners, and special programming that is designed with mom in mind.
  
• Globalization has spread Mother's Day to New Zealand, but the holiday is celebrated in a very unique way: individuals purchase gifts and acknowledge all family members and friends who are mothers, not just their own mother!  Mothers are celebrated with special dinners, picnics, and several types of gifts.  This day truly is a day for mothers who are exempt from any typical "mom" duties.
  
• In South Africa, carnations are used to symbolize the status of one's mother.  Red and pink refer to living mothers, while white carnations are meant to symbolize mothers who have passed away.  And like in New Zealand, mothers are all types are recognized and treated special.
  

Source: http://www.mothersdaycelebration.com/, Pictures: Google Images

Tips for Field Work/International Travel:

The following is an article I published originally in the Canadian Association of Physical Anthropology Newsletter (Spring 2011).  You can find the original publication here.  I am reposting it here since the information is very relevant, particularly for anyone interested in or currently planning on doing fieldwork (as summer time is the most frequent time students and scholars conduct fieldwork).

Don’t forget your Snickers bar...And other helpful tips to know before embarking on fieldwork.

While in undergrad, a professor told us about her opportunity to conduct fieldwork in Africa.  She had never previously left the country and was bombarded with advice about what to expect when in the field.  Of all the advice, the best was to take several Snickers bars with her.  She laughed but admitted that she coveted those Snickers bars, eating them sparingly as they were her little reminder of home. 

That story has stuck out in my mind over the years, particularly when I have gone out in the field over my anthropological career.  While I agree with my professor’s advice, there are several other things that one should know (and remember) before heading out in to the field, be it close or far from home.  Heed these pieces of advice as you may need them even if you do no expect it.

• Do not forget your “Snickers bars”.  It is important to bring something that reminds you of home along with you on your trip.  You cannot know how much you may need it, particularly when home sick or frustrated with your work.  Plus, you never know when you could use that “Snickers bar” to strike up a conversation between you and a colleague, friend, or random stranger from whom you need help.  I found that family photographs made relations between the Hostel staff and me much easier, which helped me out greatly during my stay.
• Know the language.  This seems like common sense.  How else can one effectively communicate with colleagues or get around if one does not know the language?  Do not assume that anyone will speak your native tongue because chances are you will run into a situation where no one does and you really need some sort of help (even if it is just to find a washroom).  Along this, know the language, as in know the culture and meanings behind the language, even if you are going somewhere close to your home.  Certain words or phrases that mean nothing to you may have deeper meanings amongst the people you are working with.  Example: In Chile, people will frequently ask a woman, “Are you alone?”  This is because women usually do not travel alone, and therefore people are concerned about their safety.  There is a double meaning to this question: “Are you single?”  This can lead to several awkward conversations if the context of the question is lost or unknown.  Avoid this by learning not only how to speak the language, but also the contextual meanings before heading out into the field.
• Read the local (of your field site) newspaper before you leave.  Some events and information will make the international and national news agencies (e.g. natural disasters, elections, coups, etc.), but other information will not.  It is in your best interest to find out what is going on locally in the field area.  Holidays, protests, pollution, strikes, etc. could interfere with your work and/or make it extremely dangerous to work in the area.  Talk to colleagues or read the online newspapers, blogs, etc. to find out what you can and prepare accordingly.
• Have a Plan B...and C, D, E, F, and G if possible.  You write a research proposal or have some sort of plan for your research/work before you head out, but very few people devise a “just in case” back up plan.  It is best to have a back up plan in case something delays or ends your research project.  Machines break down, museum records are wrong, collections go missing, weather interferes, etc.  Having a back up plan (or three) is helpful for keeping on track and not delaying your work anymore than necessary.
• Know what the requirements are of where you are going.  Some countries require people to pay for entrance visas before entering, and these costs range from country to country.  To complicate matters further, these entrance visas may have an expiry date, and you should know what options are available for renewal.  As well, some places require you to have proof of specific vaccinations before you enter.  If you do not have these documents, you may not be allowed to enter the country or you may be quarantined for an extended period.  Avoid these delays by familiarizing yourself with these regulations before you leave.
• Be prepared and willing to spend money for your safety.  You should not be afraid or unwilling to pay more for safety.  Know what modes of travel, areas of town, places to eat, hotels or hostels, doctors/facilities, etc. are safe.  This is important not only for the time lost from being ill but because you could potentially harm yourself for far longer than your time in the field.  As such, do not be miserly about your safety.
• Sunscreen is your friend.  Do not forget sunscreen, bug repellent, a small first aid kit, etc.  These items may not be available or are available at an inflated cost (e.g. $20 for an ounce of sunscreen).  You may think you will not need these items or you can do without, but you may come to regret that decision later, particularly when you are forever known as “The Shrimp” because of the awful sunburn you had all field season.
• Do not bring anything you will be upset to lose.  It may be your favorite sweater that you must bring with you everywhere you go, but are you able to part with it?  If the answer is no, then leave it at home.  You may plan to be extra careful, but you cannot control for everything, including theft, laundry mishaps, no room in your suitcase, etc.  It is best to bring things that you will have no problems losing or leaving if absolutely necessary.
• Know how to contact family and friends.  Before you leave, find out if you will have access to the internet, telephones, cellular phones, and/or snail mail.  You may be surprised by what you do have access to in some areas but not in others.  Parts of the rural USA only have a few pay phones, limited cell service, and postal mail but no access to the internet, making it difficult to contact family, friends, and your supervisor or committee.  Areas in South America, however, have several communication options available, including internet cafes, local and long distance phone centers, cellular services, and postal mail.  Also check what access to banks and wire transfers you will have available to you in the field in case you run into a monetary emergency. 
• Expect reverse culture shock.  Expect to feel reverse culture shock upon returning home.  You may have been speaking a different language for months, observing foreign customs, dressing a different way, etc., and all of a sudden you have to revert back to how you were before you left.  The reverse culture shock can last a while but this is dependent on the length of time you were away. 
• Expect to be sick both in and out of the field.  Your body is used to a specific environment, and you may get sick upon entering a new one and upon returning to the old one.  You may feel a little stomach discomfort or far worse.  Make sure you have adequate travel insurance that will actually cover any medical expenses incurred in the field.  Do not assume the plan covers everything or everywhere as some plans will not cover medical costs incurred in “high risk regions.”
• REMEMBER TO HAVE SOME FUN!  A senior faculty member once said, “Be happy.  You’ll never be able to conduct research like this again!”  Enjoy the freedom to conduct field research like that you can in your student career but also be sure to take a moment and enjoy the scenery.  Network with colleagues, make friends outside of your direct research group, check out the sites, explore your surroundings, and whatever else you find fun.  You never know what you will find, what experiences will make great stories for later, and the lasting friendships you will make.  Plus, these experiences and people will help take some of the edge off of the stress of working/researching, which will make the whole overall experience much more enjoyable.