Identity Crisis: Exploring Intersection Theory

Social stratification, or the division of members of societies, can occur in a variety of ways, but the most common means of division is based on the identities of individuals (e.g. gender, ethnicity, race, sexuality, occupation, religion, etc.).  Typically, when one thinks about social stratification the focus is on one type of identity, but this is too simplistic and unrealistic.  All individuals have multiple identities.  For example, I (the author) am a woman, a daughter, a sister, a professor, etc.  It is the combination of these identities and their importance within society that dictates how an individual is treated.  In my case, I am treated differently from a man because I am a woman, and our society favors men.  I am also treated differently because of my occupation as a professor versus if I were a waitress.  

This trend was noted by Kimberle Crenshaw, who formally identified what is known as intersection theory, which is the analysis of the interplay of various types of identity often resulting in multiple dimensions of disadvantage.  In other words, individuals who hold multiple minority (less powerful) statuses will be treated more poorly and have greater social disadvantages as compared to those who do not have any or as many minority statuses attached to their overall identity.  Crenshaw believed it was important to acknowledge the effects of multiple identities, particularly among women, because the disadvantages felt by one minority group (e.g. women) will vary greatly within the group.  She pointed out that the disadvantages of white women will be different from those of an African American, Hispanic, or Asian women because these individuals would be more disadvantaged based on their status as women and racial/ethnic minorities.   Since Crenshaw’s initial identification of intersection theory, cultural scholars have expanded the definition to not just focus on the insectionality of women and their identities but to any individual considered to have a minority status/identity.

But how exactly does intersection theory work?  If we look at Crenshaw’s original idea, intersection theory & gender, in American society we can find some distinctive views about the gender roles of men and women.  A simple web search on the topic turned up that women are expected to want to marry to fulfill roles as wives and desire to bear and raise children.  Women are expected to put the family’s welfare above their own self-interests.  They are to be loving, compassionate, caring, nurturing, sympathetic, and emotional.  They are also supposed to strive to well kempt and always strive to be beautiful as a matter of attracting a male mate, to whom they must be submissive.  Men, on the other hand, are expected to be the “bread winner”, the financial provider.  Men are expected to be assertive, competitive, independent, courageous, and career-focused.  They should never be emotional, and they should be the sexual aggressor, seeking the companionship of a woman of their choosing.  

But will all women (or men, for that matter) be expected to fulfill these roles?  Are there factors that may affect how or the overall ability of women and men to fulfill these roles?  The correct answer is yes, there are.  As intersection theory states, it is the combination of multiple identities that affects how a person is treated, so an examination of an additional form of identity, race or ethnicity, in addition to gender demonstrates this point by providing the following gender stereotypes by race or ethnicity (again through a web search):

• White men: Breadwinners, Providers, Family Men
• White women: Domestic goddesses, mothers, homemakers
• Black men: Gangsters, Lazy vagrants, criminals
• Black women: Aunt Jemima, Crack Whore, welfare mothers, gold diggers
• Hispanic men: Greasers, Lazy, Latin Lovers, Drug Dealer/Bandito
• Hispanic women: Maids/Domestic Workers, Fiesty Latinas, Harlots
• Native American men: Medicine Men, Drunk, Violent or Noble Savage
• Native American women: Squaw, Princess
• Asian men: Gangsters, Nerds, Controlling, Powerful, Wise Man
• Asian women: Geishas, Submissive, Dragon lady

And careful analysis of these stereotypes demonstrates that men, particularly minority men, are depicted as powerful in some way (e.g. gangsters, drug dealers, leaders, aggressors), while women, particularly minority women, are continually depicted in a more negative manner (as submissive, dumb, sexually available). 

Figure 1: US Bureau of Labor Statistic Salary Differences by Gender & Race/Ethnicity

But how does intersection theory work in the real world?  Does it really matter?  Studies on income disparities seem to suggest that there is a correlation between holding multiple minority statuses and feeling more social disadvantage.  Income earnings data from 2011 as collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (division of the US Department of Labor) demonstrates that men, on average, make more than women, even when men and women work in the same or similar occupations.  On average, women make 88% as much as men’s weekly income.  But this income disparity situation gets worse when income differences are further broken down by gender and race (Figure 1).  Women continually make less than men, but minority women make far less than white women and even less than white men.

Overall, these data demonstrate that Whites and Asians, who are associated with positive stereotypes, are economically advantaged as compared to Blacks and Hispanics, who are associated with negative stereotypes, and are economically disadvantaged.  Many may claim that this economic disparity is not surprising due to various factors (e.g. level of education), but other sources report that even in cases where minorities have professional degrees, they make far less than Whites and Asians with professional degrees.  Minorities with professional degrees usually make a wage/salary similar to Whites & Asians with bachelors or associates degrees and the same male/female economic disparities exist.

In addition, NPR published an article on a study about African American female students being far more likely to ve suspended in school than their male counterparts and Caucasian females and males. You can read the article here. This is another example of intersection theory as applied to real life, further demonstrating the levels of discrimination and inequality felt by minorities.

Another way to think about intersection theory as a whole is to think of it in the following manner:

Imagine that it is a hot day, but due to social norms you still have to wear clothing.  Some people get to wear very few pieces of clothing (e.g. shorts and a t shirt), whereas other people are required to wear multiple layers of clothing (e.g stockings, socks, pants, shirts, sweaters, etc.).  Each layer of clothing that a person is required to wear is a different identity that someone has, be it voluntarily or involuntarily accepted identity.  Because it is a hot day those with less clothing will be more comfortable than those forced to wear multiple layers of clothing, and those with fewer layers of clothing will have less difficulty accomplishing tasks, even simple tasks, than those who are wearing multiple layers of clothing.  You can probably understand the difficulties faced by those who are forced to wear multiple layers of clothing versus those who are not, and that is exactly what happens in society on a daily basis in regards to their identities.  

In conclusion intersection theory is the study of different layers of identity, specifically minority identities (including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexuality, and religion), that when combined perpetuate further oppression and discrimination.  It is important to acknowledge the effects of these multiple layers of identity since the combination of these minority identities will cause more or less oppression and discrimination.  We see the point of intersection theory in income disparities among racial/ethnic and gender minorities, as well as with racial and ethnic minorities and women (another minority group) on average making less weekly income but ethnic/racial minority women making far less than ethnic/racial minority men.  Intersection theory is a very real phenomenon and one that cannot and must not be ignored.

Works Cited

Bureau of Labor Statistics

Sociology, John Macionis, Prentice Hall, 13th edition.