Memorials of the Dead: The Arsenic Hypothesis & Chinchorro Anthropogenic Mummification Practices

Chinchorro mummy display at the Museo Arqueologico San Miguel de Azapa (no human remains present in this image)

 

 

As previously discussed on this blog, the Chinchorro are credited with creating some of the earliest anthropogenic mummies known to man.  This feat is remarkable but even more so when you recognize that this cultural group lacked various other advanced technologies that are typically associated with complex mortuary traditions, such as mummification.  This has led scholars to speculate as to what led the Chinchorro to mummify their dead, and today’s blog post will discuss the latest hypothesis that has been put forward to explain this ancient practice: the Arsenic Hypothesis.

 

The Chinchorro were an Archaic period (7000-1000 B.C.) population that resided along the coasts of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile and southern Peru.  The Atacama Desert, the world’s driest desert, was and remains a very inhospitable place to live.  Ancient human occupation sites exist at the mouths of rivers where fresh water was most plentiful.  The Chinchorro seemingly thrived in this region for thousands of years, living off of the abundant marine and riverine resources made available to them in these river valleys and in the Pacific Ocean.  It is hypothesized that the Chinchorro first took residence in the Camarones Valley of northern Chile and then expanded out to nearby river valleys.  Their cultural traditions are characterized by their fishing technology manufactured from local shells, cotton and vegetal nets and baskets, and anthropogenic mummification practices.

 

While living in the world’s driest desert is challenging on its own this was not the only environmental challenge the Chinchorro faced.  This region is also well known for its endemic arsenic and various other heavy metal exposure issues.  These heavy metals, particularly arsenic, were created through the natural formation of the Andes, which were formed through tectonics and volcanic activity.  While volcanos are no longer active in the region the arsenic and heavy metals produced by them are locked into the soils of the mountains, which seeps into the water that feeds the coastal river valleys. 

 

Arsenic is a highly soluble element that is also odorless and tasteless, rendering exposure unrecognizable.  Arsenic exposure in small doses will not irreparably harm individuals, but consistent and constant exposure can cause a myriad of pathological responses (e.g., cancers, skin lesions, miscarriages) and death.  This problem was first recognized in the region in the 1960s when these very issues were identified as occurring at higher rates than in other areas, leading to modern Chileans to abstain from drinking the local waters and taking precautions against unnecessary arsenic exposure.  Unfortunately, ancient populations were unaware of this danger and were likely exposed to extremely high levels of arsenic not just from the drinking water but from the soils and food (the latter of which would have received arsenic through the local water sources that sustained them).

 

In 2006 Bernardo Arriaza hypothesized that endemic arsenic exposure may have led to the Chinchorro anthropogenically mummifying their dead.  He believed that high rates of miscarriages and infant death, which were already documented among the Chinchorro, may have led to community grief that was appeased through their complex mortuary practices.  At the time he put forward this hypothesis, however, there had been no direct studies completed on the Chinchorro to support or refute this notion.  Since then, several studies have been completed and they do demonstrate that Chinchorro were not only exposed to high levels of arsenic but metabolized the arsenic.  Studies of Chinchorro hair showed extremely high levels of arsenic present, particularly among the anthropogenically mummified infants and children.  A different study examined pathological responses to arsenic exposure and found some links, although nothing truly definitive. 

 

Ultimately, there is evidence to support the Arsenic Hypothesis, which shows how the Chinchorro culturally manifested their grief and pain from living in this harsh environment.  They used their sorrow to create memorials to their dead in the form of their anthropogenic mummification practices, which demonstrate their love and care for the deceased.  This also demonstrates the links between culture and environment wherein people do not solely control their environments but are also influenced by it.   

 

References

Arriaza, Bernardo, et al. "Exploring chronic arsenic poisoning in pre-Columbian Chilean mummies." Journal of Archaeological Science (2010): 1274–1278. Print.

Boston, Christine. Growth and Development and Paleopathological Analysis of Ancient Northern Chilean Populations as Related to Possible Arsenic Poisoning. London, Ontario: University of Western Ontario, 2007. Print.

Bryne, Sam, et al. "Were Chinchorros exposed to arsenic? Arsenic determination in Chinchorro mummies' hair by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)." Microchemical Journal (2010): 28-35. Print.

 

 

Women Who Kill: The Legend of Japan’s Killing Stone

Figure 1: Sessho-seki, the Japanese Killing Stone (Source: Getty Images)

 

In early March of this year news agencies around the world exploded with news of the fracturing of the Sessho-seki, the Japanese killing stone (Figure 1).  According to Japanese lore this killing stone contained the spirit of a possessed woman who had unsuccessfully tried to kill an emperor and as punishment for her deed had been imprisoned in the stone.  Given the previous years of bad luck this news seemed to add more fuel to the fire of awful news, igniting a firestorm of speculation, fears, predictions, and more among not only the Japanese but outsiders, as well.  This blog post will address the original Japanese myths of the killing stone, what they tell us about Japanese culture in the past and today, and what how the news of its fracture was interpreted.

 

The myths surrounding the killing stone stem back to the reign of Emperor Toba, who ruled Japan from 1107 to 1123.  According to one legend near the end of his reign a woman, Tamamo-no-Mae, used her beauty and guile to secure a meeting with the emperor.  Her goal was to assassinate him.  According to the legends she nearly succeeded, but failed as he only fell ill.  Two of the emperor’s guards hunted her down and killed her, releasing a demonic spirit that possessed her and caused her actions against the emperor.  The demon was a kitsune, a nine tailed fox demon characterized by its need to deceive, and it was immediately trapped in a large volcanic stone and left at the location where Tamamo-no-Mae had been slain. 

 

Another myth tells a slightly different story, however.  The second myth is far more abridged and simply states that a woman forewarned men passing by the stone that it was cursed and that anyone who touched it would die.  When the men asked too many questions the woman disappeared into the stone, leading them to conclude that she was a demon trapped in the stone and responsible for killing those who disturbed her.

 

There is no historical or scientific evidence to support the existence of the myth or the likelihood of dying upon touching the stone, although there is evidence that demonstrates how and why these legends began.  The killing stone is located in Nikko National Park, about 100 miles (160 kilometers) north of Tokyo.  This park contains several volcanos and sulfur springs, which when active can and often do release poisonous gases that could at the very least make someone very ill (and at the very worse kill them).  These naturally occurring circumstances could have initiated the myths, particularly among those who did not fully understand the dangers of this environment.  The placement of a woman as being the reason for the misfortunes demonstrates Japanese values of the past, particularly 900 years ago, wherein men were seen as good and faultless, whereas women were viewed as weak and treacherous.  Modern Japanese continue to believe in the dangers of the killing stone and the legends about it, but there have been some changes in the view of the kitsune demon, which is viewed far more favorably.  It has become a favorite character among the Japanese and lovers of Japanese culture, and it is no longer feared or seen as an evil entity.

 

These changing values concerning the kitsune but not the warnings against touching the killing stone have led to some contradictory interpretations about the fracturing the of the stone among contemporary Japanese.  Although the stone broke apart due to natural erosive forces, there were a few Japanese who took to social media to convey their worry and fears, claiming that the fragmented stone released the kitsune and that misfortune would befall everyone.  These, however, were few and far between as it is considered taboo to discuss bad luck among the Japanese.  This may partially explain why many Japanese viewed the rupture of the stone favorably, claiming that the kitsune was released to save the world from its misfortunes.  These individuals also cited the blessing of the stone by a Buddhist priest several decades ago.  When he did this he put the demon to rest, releasing it from the stone and removing any malice from befalling anyone who came in contact with the stone. 

 

Ultimately, the reports concerning the killing stone and the subsequent reactions provide us glimpses into Japanese culture and history.  They also showcase culture change through the various myths surrounding the killing stone, their origins, and modern interpretations.  As time goes on it will be interesting to see how people reflect on this event and whether their original interpretations, be they concerning the kitsune’s intent, change.

 

Works Cited

Dunhill, Jack. "Japan’s “Killing Stone”, Said To Contain A Chaotic Demon for 1,000 Years, Splits In Half." 7 March 2022. IFLScience. Electo. 3 June 2022.

Ives, Mike and Makiko Inoue. "A ‘Killing Stone’ Broke in Japan. Is a Demon on the Loose?" New York Times 18 March 2022. Electronic.

Marples, Megan. "A Japanese 'killing stone,' said to contain an evil 9-tailed fox spirit, has split in two." 1 April 2022. CNN. Electronic. 3 June 2022.

McCurry, Justin. "Japan’s ‘killing stone’ splits in two, releasing superstitions amid the sulphur springs." 7 March 2022. The Guardian. Electronic. 3 June 2022.

Children at Play: Ancient Footprints & Children's Behavior in the Ancient Past

Figure 1: Children's Footprints in Giant Sloth Footprint

 

 

Archaeology is the study of people in the past, including their cultural traditions, values, beliefs, and behaviors.  More often than not archaeology focuses on the lives of adults.  There are various reasons for this, including the control adults have in creating, forming, and transmitting culture throughout generations.  It is also easier to gain access to evidence related to and/or created by adults, leading to another reason why they are focused on in the archaeological record.  This does not mean, however, that studies of the archaeology of children are completely ignored.  Due to the difficulties in accessing those data these studies are often more difficult to complete, but when they are done they provide us greater insights into children and childhoods across the ages.  This blog post will discuss one such study in relation to very early human children here in North America.

 

The White Sands National Park site in New Mexico is now understood to be a very fruitful location for understanding early human life in the Americas.  Beginning in 2017 footprint expert Matthew Bennett from Bournemouth University (United Kingdom) began discovering various types of footprints throughout the area.  These included footprints from various megafauna, such as giant sloths, as well as those of humans. 

 

One of his most recent discoveries was a set of footprints of three to five small children found within a larger footprint of a giant ground sloth (Figure 1).  The composition and placement of the footprints intrigued Bennett and his team for several reasons.  First, their existence demonstrated that the environment had previously been far more wet than it is today (as the region is now a desert).  It also showed that humans and megafauna coexisted at least 11,500 years ago.  More importantly, though, Bennett interpreted the footprints to have been made by children playing in a mud puddle.  This conclusion is remarkable because it demonstrates that carefree living among children is not a recent cultural phenomenon but one that spans generations over thousands of years. 

 

Unfortunately, this information has not been formally published by Bennett and his team yet, but it may be part of a larger study of various types of human adults’ and children’s footprints found throughout the site.  Previously discovered footprint of an adult and child showed them walking side by side throughout the area, providing greater insights into life in the region. 

 

This information, however, is not without criticism.  There are concerns about the 11,500-year-old date attached to the children’s footprints.  This date pushes back the previously established date of humans’ arrival in the Americas.  The exact period of arrival has and continues to be widely debated within the archaeological community, but the radiometric dates acquired from seeds and plant remains within the giant sloth’s foot provide that date.  Hopefully, Bennett and his team formally publish their research on this and related discoveries so as to provide greater insights into early life among human children and help resolve the peopling of Americas debate.

 

Bibliography

Barras, Colin. "Ancient footprints show children splashed in puddles 11,500 years ago." New Scientist 6 April 2022. Electronic.

Bennett, Matthew, et al. PBS News Hour: Ancient footprints in New Mexico raise questions about when humans inhabited North America Stephanie Sy. 4 April 2022.

Savitsky, Zack. "Ancient human playground found inside sloth footprints." Science 13 April 2022. Electronic.