The Beauty and Complexity of Language: Ethnopoetics

Have you ever been moved by a song, but that same song mean nothing to someone else?  Are you a fan of poetry, or do you cringe at the very mention of it?  Songs and poetry are very similar in that they both harness language to tell stories and imbue meaning from the author to the listener.  Within anthropology the study of such media can take multiple different forms, from ethnomusicologyv to ethnopoetics, the latter of which is the subject of this post.  This post will explore what ethnopoetics is and how it is related to anthropological studies of cultures.

The term ethnopoetics was coined by anthropological linguists, Jerome Rothenberg and Dennis Tedlock, in 1968 (although the former is recognized more frequently than the latter).  The notion that drove the creation of the discipline of ethnopoetics was the desire to move away from ideas that European and Western arts be considered the best or standard for which all other art forms were evaluated, and a complimentary movement toward more inclusion, awareness, and appreciation of non-Western art forms.  Ethnopoetic researchers principally study non-Western and ancient art forms, including poetry, song, riddles, limericks, etc., but the study of modern non-Western poetries and similar prose is included within the field of study.

Ultimately, the goal of ethnopoetics is to recognize the cultural meanings imbued in the poetic art forms created by non-Western peoples.  Ethnopoetic scholars typically either focus on the written or verbally performed poetries (or song), but many are versed in both areas of study.  Ultimately, the recognition of how the poem or song is composed, through specific word selection, the line structures, the comma placements, and how it is performed, with specific tones, intentional pauses, different voices, the inclusion or exclusion of props, etc., all come together to provide a specific message that is important to and/or most understood by the author and affiliated cultural group. 

This ties back to the ideas of linguistic relativity and how language affects perceptions since word use and tone affect meaning and therefore understanding.  Through the study of ethnopoetics is an appreciation of an artform as much as it is also a study of culture.  By understanding the art from the cultural group’s perspective one gains a deeper understanding of the culture itself, similarly to how one person can find deep meaning in a song or poem but that message is lost to another.

Bibliography

Poetry Foundation. Glossary of Poetic Terms. n.d. Electronic. 19 December 2019.

Poets.org. A Brief Guide to Ethnopoetics. 4 May 2004. Electronic. 19 December 2019.

Tedlock, Dennis. ETHNOPOETICS. n.d. Electronic. 19 December 2019.

Webster, Anthony K. "Cultural Poetics (Ethnopoetics) ." December 2015. Oxford Handbooks Online. Electronic. 19 December 2019.

Understanding the Lucumi Religion

Lucumi practitioner (Source: Ancient Origins)

During the slave trade Cuba became home to the most diverse populations of enslaved Africans.  They came from coastal and inland regions of the continent, and they brought with them an assorted mix of cultural customs, including ideological/religious beliefs.  Born from this forced migration came a new faith known respectfully as either Lucumi or Ocha, although the popular and disrespectful name is Santeria (used here only for recognition purposes).  This blog post will discuss what is publicly available about the faith.  It is important to note that much is not known for several reasons, which will be disclosed further below, and any inaccuracies provided herein are the fault of the author.

Lucumi is a religion that combines the various African faiths of enslaved Africans brought to Cuba into one.  Some scholars note that there are elements of Catholicism present in Lucumi practices, but devotees vehemently argue against this.  This is but one of many ways that Lucumi is different from the adjacent Vodou faith practiced among Haitians.  It is believed that part of the reason why Catholicism is mixed in with Lucumi is the history of slave owners strictly prohibiting the practice of native African religions, which then had to be practiced under the guise of Catholic practices.  Plus, there are several aspects of Lucumi practice that are attributed to Catholicism, which is not the case.  These principally concern the use of idols representing the primary god and spirits (orisha) worshiped within the faith.  These idols are typically placed on an altar in the home, and homage and tribute are paid to them daily.  Also, the fact that Lucumi is identified as a monotheistic (one primary god) religion but also has lesser deities or ancestral spirits is often associated with Catholicism’s use of Saints.  In fact, some claim that the lesser Lucumi deities or ancestral spirits are referred to as Saints, which further adds to the confusion.

The Lucumi faith is distinctly different from Catholicism, though, in various ways.  First, there is a formalized rites of passage process that all devotees must go through.  Over a year period practitioners will wear white and appropriately colored bracelets representing their orisha(s).  They will abstain from drinking alcohol or using drugs, sleep in the community house, and follow very strict dietary and behavior restrictions.  All of this is meant to represent the cleansing required to become a member of the faith.  Some reports claim that there is also a ritual conducted at the beginning of the process where inductees’ heads are shaved and the body cut slightly to allow for sacred substances to be added to the body to create a permanent link between the individual and the god.  At the end of the year period an animal, typically one associated with the region and the god’s preference, is sacrificed and eaten in celebration, and in subsequent years on the anniversary the same animal is sacrificed and eaten in remembrance.  This is the only report of animal sacrifice in the faith (based on the information available).

Unfortunately, there remains many secrets about the Lucumi faith, but this is largely due to negative stereotypes and misinformation campaigns against Lucumi followers.  Lucumi practitioners are hesitant to share their religious identities for fear of persecution.  Additionally, there is information about Lucumi that is only meant for the faithful, and therefore it cannot be shared.  What is known is due to the large number of Cuban immigrants across the globe there are many Lucumi followers throughout the world, and the faith continues strong despite historical and modern attempts to snuff it out.  It remains an important aspects of Cuban and, in many ways, African identity.

Bibliography

Davis, C. (2018, April 16). Santeria, Culture, and Syncretism in Cuba. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from The Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs: https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/santeria-culture-and-syncretism-in-cuba

Dorsey, D. (2017, March 30). BUSTING THE MYTHS OF SANTERIA — AND THEIR ANTI-BLACK ORIGINS. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from Wear Your Voice Magazine: https://wearyourvoicemag.com/identities/anti-black-myths-santeria

Merten, P. (2018, July 31). In Cuba, Santería flourishes two decades after ban was lifted. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from The Ground Truth Project: https://thegroundtruthproject.org/cuba-santeria-catholicism-religion-flourish-two-decades-freedom-granted/

The Pluralism Project. (n.d.). “Santería,” The Lucumi Way. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from The Pluralism Project, Harvard University: http://pluralism.org/religions/afro-caribbean/afro-caribbean-traditions/santeria-the-lucumi-way/

Aksum: A Great African Empire

Figure 1: Map of the Aksum Empire (Source: The British Museum)

When one thinks of empire a great number of groups may come to mind, such as the empire of Egypt, Rome, China, South America, or others.  What most likely will not come to mind for many is the great African empire of Aksum, one of Africa’s earliest empires and state level societies.  Today’s blog post will correct this oversight by providing information pertaining to this empire, covering its full and rich cultural history.

Aksum (aka Axum) was an empire that began in the 4^th or 3^rd centuries B.C. and existed until about the 7^th century (A.D.).  It spanned across much of northeastern Africa, covering what is now called the horn of Africa (Figure 1).  The heart of this empire was in the Hatsebo plain (in modern day Ethiopia).  The Aksum state (and later empire) was controlled by a paramount king and potentially lesser kings who maintained the boundaries of the empire.  There were levels of hierarchy within the empire, which included the nobility and upper and lower classes of the citizenry, which was made up of traders, farmers, craftspeople, religious officials, and more.  Each played a crucial role in the society.  Traders were pivotal as Aksum is best known for its trading networks where ivory, gold, salt, and iron were traded to civilizations across northern Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.  It was through these trading networks that Christianity was introduced to the Aksum king, and when he converted in the mid-300s it is believed that his entire state and empire may have, too.  There is evidence, however, that there was a segment of the population who practiced Judaism, which demonstrates a cosmopolitan empire. 

Figure 2: Aksum ruins

Aksum is also known for a variety of other achievements.  One of those is the production of the earliest written African script, Ge’ez.  The Aksumites were also known as prolific builders (Figure 2).  Many of their megalithic sandstone structures still stand today, which is a testament to their craftsmanship and ingenuity as these monuments never used a drop of mortar.  Aksum also was one of the earliest empires to mint their own coins (Figure 3).  It is also known that Aksum maintained large scale agricultural exploits, growing wheat and barley and raising cattle, sheep, and camels, which most likely were used to feed their large populations.

Unfortunately, the Aksum empire fell in the 7^th century.  It is imprecisely known why this occurred, but it may have been any number of factors.  It is known that the Aksumites were at war with neighboring groups, which ended their vast trading networks and may have also introduced disease to the population.  Extended period of drought also affected the populations as they were unable to sustain the food resources necessary to feed their growing populations.  Although the empire did fall it is still hailed both in the past and today as one of the greatest earliest empires of that period, being heralded as one of the top four according to early Alexandrian historians.  Today, it is still not forgotten and remains considered one of the most unique empires of the period.

Figure 3: Askum currency

Works Cited

Department of the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. “Foundations of Aksumite Civilization and Its Christian Legacy (1st–8th Century).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aksu_1/hd_aksu_1.htm (October 2000)

Sullivan, Kelly. The Kingdom of Axum: Facts and Legends of a First Millennium Powerhouse. 13 April 2019. Electronic. 23 December 2019.

The British Museum, "The kingdom of Aksum," in Smarthistory, September 23, 2016, accessed December 23, 2019, https://smarthistory.org/the-kingdom-of-aksum/.