The Maasai

Figure 1: Map of contemporary Maasai occupation (Source: The Maasai Association)

 

The Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania (Figure 1) are one of the most recognizable indigenous ethnic groups of Africa.  Well known for their colorful attire and being some of the foremost long-distance runners chances are you have seen or heard of the Maasai ahead of reading this blog post.  You may not, however, know much about them, which is what this post seeks to remedy.  This post will explore the Maasai people and their culture.

 

The Maasai were and remain one of the largest indigenous ethnic groups in eastern Africa (Figure 2).  They have a long history in the area, tracing their roots back to the Nubian empire.  They have long been characterized as fierce warriors who fight with spears and orinkas (thrown clubs).  This characterization, however, has in large part been promoted by British colonizers, who ultimately could not best the Maasai in combat and instead manipulated them through the British court system.  This led the Maasai to unknowingly and unfairly cede much of their lands and territories to the British, leading them to be relocated to reserve lands throughout Kenya and Tanzania.  Today, the 900,000 Maasai continue to face adversity as the Kenyan and Tanzanian governments attempt to force them to abandon their traditional way of life.  The Maasai have largely rejected these attempts, although small numbers of Maasai have acquiesced.

 

The Maasai share a rich culture.  They remain largely semi-nomadic pastoralists who raise cattle and goats.  They construct temporary dwellings and villages throughout the year.  Women build their homes, which are known as Inkajijik.  These are circular or elongated dwellings that are easily constructed and torn down.  Maasai men are responsible for constructing the Enkang, a circular fence that surrounds the village and protects their cattle and other livestock.  

 

Figure 2: A group of Maasai dressed in traditional attire (Source: Shem Compion)

 

Because of their emphasis on herding animals the Maasai diet is rich in beef, milk, fat, and blood.   Milk is consumed fresh or curdled, and it sometimes mixed with fresh cattle blood.  This concoction is consumed during either rituals or for medicinal purposes. They also consume honey, tree bark, rice, maize, and cabbage, which they gather or grow through horticultural practices. 

 

The Maasai are a very patriarchal society, meaning men rule and control the resources within the group.  They are also characterized as monotheistic, meaning they worship one god.  Their beliefs dictate that only chiefs are buried, while other deceased members of their tribe are left out to decompose and be consumed by scavengers.  Wealth inequalities exist within the group since wealth is tied to the number of children and cattle a man has.  If a man has one but not another (e.g., cattle but no children or children but no cattle) he is considered impoverished.

 

Maasai men and women wear colorful attire that differentiates them by gender, age, and location.  Boys and men will wear black attire for months after they are circumcised.  Red garments are preferred among the Maasai, but they can be found wearing any number of colorful garb.  They often adorn themselves in jewelry.  Men and women also pierce or stretch their ear lobes.

 

Music is also a central part of their cultural traditions.  It is through music they maintain their language, Maa.  They also share their histories, beliefs, and more through music.  Maasai music is rhythmic, involving a chorus singing harmonies and a song leader, called the olaranyani, sings the melody.  This individual is often the individual who sings the song best, meaning this individual can change based on skills, talents, and the song itself.

 

Works Cited

Maasai Association. The Maasai People. No Date. Electronic. 1 April 2025.

Masai Mara Travel. Maasai Tribe. 2025. Electronic. 1 April 2025.

Siyabona Africa (Pty) Ltd. The Maasai Tribe, East Africa. 2024. Electronic. 1 April 2025.

The Wild Co. The Maasai. 2016. Electronic. 1 April 2025.

Cannibalism Among Paleolithic Humans: The Case Study at the Maszycka Cave Site

 

Figure 1: The Maszycka Cave Site in Poland

 

Cannibalism is a very sensational topic.  It is considered a universal taboo despite evidence of its practice among hominid ancestors and modern human groups.  There are many motivations for practicing cannibalism.  These include acts of respect and veneration in funerary cannibalism, which involves consuming the remains of a loved one; there is also cannibalism as an extreme act required for survival.  Regardless of the reason cannibalism has existed for centuries, and recent archaeological evidence demonstrates another dimension of how and why cannibalism existed among early humans: cannibalism as potentially part of warfare rituals.  This blog post will discuss this new evidence further.

 

European researchers analyzed the remains of ten individuals (six adults and four juveniles) who were located at the Maszycka Cave site near Kraków, Poland (Figure 1).  This site is associated with the Upper Paleolithic Magdalenian foragers (11,000 to 17,000 years ago).  These remains were excavated and recovered in the 1960s, but they had not been studied until recently, when new methods and techniques were available to exhaustively and accurately analyze them.  Over 60 human bone fragments from long bones (arms and legs), skull, and shoulder girdle (shoulder blades and collar bones) were available, and the scholars made a startling discovery: marks that they concluded were evidence of intentional butchery marks and those caused by human teeth.  Not only that but these marks were made shortly after the ten individuals died.  The presence of the butchery and human bite marks were astonishing enough, but further analysis brought to light potential motivations for these marks: they were more than likely the result of either warfare cannibalism or a need for the butchers to meet nutritional needs.  It may have been a combination of the two, wherein the ten individuals were killed because they were seen as enemies and their bodies used as food after the fact.

 

Cannibalism among the Magdalenian foraging groups is nothing new.  There is evidence throughout Magdalenian sites across the European continent that demonstrate cannibalism was common, although it may not have been a norm.  Prior to the conclusions derived from the Maszycka Cave site scholars believed that Magdalenian cannibalism was conducted as part of funerary cannibalism rituals.  There was evidence of human remains being fashioned into personal adornments (e.g., jewelry) and utilitarian items (e.g., skull cups), suggesting that these were memorials of the dead meant to venerate and celebrate the lives of the deceased.  These conclusions, however, are difficult to support, calling them into question based on the latest evidence and potential bias among contemporary scholars who have a (justifiable) bias against cannibalism (again, it is a modern universal taboo).  As additional evidence is located (if it is located since preservation for remains from this period is not ideal) hopefully a better and more definitive conclusion can be reached.

 

References

Marginedas, F., Saladié, P., Połtowicz-Bobak, M., Terberger, T., Bobak, D., & Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A. (2025). New insights of cultural cannibalism amongst Magdalenian groups at Maszycka Cave, Poland. Scientific Reports, 2351.

Radley, D. (2025, February 7). 18,000-year-old evidence of cultural cannibalism uncovered in Poland’s Maszycka Cave. Archaeology News.

Ronald, I. (2025, February2025 14). Early Europeans may have eaten their enemies’ brains, archaeologists say . CNN.

Yirka, B. (2025, February 7). Evidence of cannibalism by ancient Magdalenian people found in cave in Poland. Phys.org.

 

Spotlight on Students: Endangered Primate Profile

The following is a guest post featuring the work of a student enrolled in SA 202: Introduction to Anthropology.  This exceptional work highlights the importance of primate conservation.  I hope you find this piece informative and are inspired to make a positive change in the world that will help this and other endangered primates.

Hainan Gibbons (Photo credit: Laurent Rivasseau/Flickr/Creative Commons)

 

By: Donovan Joyner

Across the globe, animal species face extinction at an alarming rate, with primates among the most threatened. As our closest biological relatives, primates play a crucial role in biodiversity, culture, and ecosystems. However, without immediate conservation efforts, many of these species will disappear forever. The Hainan gibbon, the world’s rarest ape, exemplifies this crisis. With fewer than 40 individuals remaining, its survival is threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and environmental changes. Protecting primates like the Hainan gibbon requires urgent awareness, conservation initiatives, and strong wildlife protection laws to prevent their extinction and preserve the balance of our ecosystem.

In the deep jungle on the secluded Hainan Island within Chinese territory, an elusive primate known as the Hainan gibbon resides. Hainan gibbons have silky, plush-like coats with distinct coloring differences between males and females (Downey 2). Males have entirely black fur, sometimes with fluffy golden cheek patches and a mohawk-like crest. Females, on the other hand, have golden fur with a black crown patch extending to the nape, yellow whiskers, and a white facial outline (Downey 2). Young gibbons start with a pale buff coat similar to adult females, but by the age of five, males turn black, while females develop a richer golden hue (Downey 2).

Hainan gibbons are primarily frugivores, favoring figs, lychee, berries, flowers, seeds, bamboo shoots, and young leaves. Occasionally, they consume insects or small lizards for extra protein and calcium. They drink water from tree hollows or leaves. Habitat loss due to plantations has limited their diet, forcing them to rely mainly on Banyan trees (figs) and wild banana trees, which provide year-round sustenance. Downey notes that these trees have become a crucial food source as other dietary options decline.

According to Downey, the Hainan gibbon is listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature IUCN (Downey 2) and is considered the world’s rarest ape, with only 37 individuals in seven groups as of 2024 (Turvey 2). Despite conservation efforts leading to a slow population increase, repopulation remains extremely difficult due to habitat destruction, genetic decline, and human activities. The Hainan gibbon faces several critical threats to its survival. Habitat loss and fragmentation, driven by agriculture, illegal logging, and expanding human settlements, have significantly reduced its living space. Hunting and illegal trade have also played a major role in its decline, as the gibbons have been killed for bushmeat, used in traditional medicine, and captured for the pet trade (Downey 2). Additionally, low genetic diversity poses a serious risk, which threatens their long-term survival. Furthermore, environmental risks, including annual typhoons, potential epidemics, and pollution, continue to endanger the species, leaving it on the brink of extinction (Downey 2).

Thanks to over a decade of conservation efforts, government support, and local community involvement, their population is slowly increasing. However, urgent action is needed to expand and protect their remaining lowland forest habitat, requiring ongoing collaboration (Schwitzer 73).  Protecting the Hainan gibbon requires intensive, well-planned conservation efforts. Despite decades of conservation work, the gibbon population in Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park has remained small, with only 20–30 individuals and limited breeding groups, putting the species at serious risk. Ensuring the long-term survival of the species depends on reducing conflicts between local communities and gibbons, making evidence-based conservation decisions, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders (Turvey 2). The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is committed to securing the future of the Hainan gibbon by strengthening habitat protection, improving forest connectivity, and promoting gibbon population growth. Their efforts focus on monitoring habitat needs, encouraging new group formation, and expanding the gibbon’s range into high-quality habitats within the park. Additionally, ZSL aims to better understand the broader threats to Hainan’s endemic biodiversity to support long-term conservation success (Turvey 2).

The New England Primate Conservancy states the Hainan gibbon plays a vital role in the health of the ecosystem on Hainan Island. Any disruptions that harm the gibbon also indicate broader environmental threats to other species (Downey 3). Historically, Hainan gibbons have played a crucial role in seed dispersal, helping regenerate native plant species by spreading seeds through their feces. However, continued habitat destruction and the species' critically low population now threaten this natural process, endangering both plant life and the wildlife that depends on it (Downey 3).

The Endangered Species International Inc. states in their article “Why Primates Matter”: “nonhuman primates are our closest biological relatives and are essential to ecosystems, cultures, religions, and local livelihoods” because they play a crucial role in regenerating tropical forests, as well as maintaining a healthy ecological balance by dispersing seeds and contributing to forest growth. Their survival is vital for biodiversity, as their extinction would have far-reaching consequences for ecosystems and the species that depend on them.

Works Cited

 

“Conservation Needs for Primates.” Endangered Species International, www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/news_jan17.html. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.

Downey, Kathleen. “Hainan Gibbon, Nomascus Hainanus - New England Primate Conservancy.” New England Primate Conservancy - ​Committed to Leaving a Legacy of Hope ​and Tools to Build a Better Tomorrow for All the Earth’s Citizens, 14 Nov. 2024, neprimateconservancy.org/hainan-gibbon/.

Schwitzer, Christoph. “Primates in Peril : The World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2016-2018.” IUCN, 5 Jan. 2023,

iucn.org/resources/jointly-published/primates-peril-worlds-25-most-endangered-primates-2016-2018.

Turvey, Samuel. “Hainan Gibbon Conservation.” ZSL, www.zsl.org/what-we-do/projects/hainan-gibbon-conservation. Accessed 22 Feb. 2025.

Spotlight on Students: Origins and Meanings of American Idioms

This post highlights the work required of my SA 202: Introduction to Anthropology students. Students were given the opportunity to research and identify the origins and meanings of a specific American phrase that they selected. Several students were given the opportunity to have their exemplary work featured on the blog, and the students who provided permission have their work featured here in this and the following blog posts. Please show your appreciation for their work through the comments.

The phrase "can't teach an old dog new tricks" came from a dog training manual, but it has morphed into referring to any individual who refuses to learn (Image Source: Pritchett Cartoons)

By: Bianca Ekholm

For this discussion, I chose the phrase "you can't teach an old dog new tricks." I chose this phrase because it is a phrase that I have heard many times before, but I have never learned the actual meaning of it. I have always taken this term more literally and assumed that it meant that it is easier to teach a young person new things than it is an older person who might not care to learn anymore. After conducting research, I learned that I was somewhat correct in my original definition. The phrase has a long history, with some historians tracing its origins back to a 1523 book by an Englishman named Fitzherbert, which focused on animal care. The book was specifically referring to training a dog to follow a scent. The phrase was originally written in a more literal manner as older dogs are not as physically or mentally capable of learning new skills or tricks as younger dogs. Today, the phrase means that it is often hard to change a persons already developed habits or characteristics in order to teach them something new. The phrase originally shifted to its current meaning in 1721, when Nathan Bailey used the phrase metaphorically to allude to people and their struggle to learn new things or change habits/behaviors. The meaning changed overtime because of the broad lack of desire to change in society. Some may use the phrase to describe their frustration with someone else's refusal to change habits, while others may use it to defend and explain why they resist change, even if the change may be for their own benefit. The meaning and use of this phrase in our current day says that most of humanity does not like change. While many people may seek change or strive to be overall better, there is an underlying stubbornness and resistance that holds those individuals back from evolving or making major adjustments in their lives. 

Work Cited:

Steenson, Tony, et al. “You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks ... or Can You?” Unimed Living, https://www.unimedliving.com/men/true-man/you-can-t-teach-an-old-dog-new-tricks-or-can-you.html.

“Can You Teach an Old Dog New Tricks?” Wonderopolis, wonderopolis.org/wonder/can-you-teach-an-old-dog-new-tricks. 

You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks - Cambridge English Dictionary, dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/you-can-t-teach-an-old-dog-new-tricks. 

A woman receiving unsolicited comments is a form of catcalling. (Source: Google Images)

 

By: Donovan Joyner

Let's discuss the term “Catcalling.” I have chosen this term because I respect and appreciate women. Before conducting any research, I believed that “catcalling” referred to when a man whistles or makes a comment to a woman he finds attractive in hopes of getting her attention. According to the article The Evolution of Catcalling, the first use of the term catcall originated in the Shakespearean era, where it was used to mock performers. The audience would shriek and cry in a manner similar to a cat’s meowing, using the term as a way to show disapproval at plays. 

Originally, it had no connection to street harassment. However, over time, the meaning evolved. Today, according to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, catcalling is defined as “the act of shouting a loud, sexually suggestive, threatening, or harassing call or remark at someone publicly.” Essentially, it is now understood as a form of sexual harassment.

The meaning of catcalling began to shift in the 20th century. In the 1940s, cartoonist Tex Avery created the character Slick Joe McWolf, a wolf known for drooling and whistling when seeing an attractive woman. This behavior was notably depicted in Red Hot Riding Hood, a reimagined version of Little Red Riding Hood. Despite its exaggerated nature, the cartoon was rated ‘U’ (suitable for all audiences), potentially influencing young boys and men to view such actions as normal and acceptable (Lee 1).

Catcalling is often dismissed as a "compliment," but genuine compliments come from trusted individuals in appropriate situations, not from aggressive strangers. In today's culture, catcalling is understood as a form of objectification and dominance rather than admiration. This reflects a broader societal issue where women's discomfort is overlooked, and catcalling is used to boost the caller’s self-esteem without considering its impact on those targeted (Lee 1).

Work Cited

Lee, Jessica. “The Evolution of Catcalling.” That’s What She Said Magazine, 26 Nov. 2022, twssmagazine.com/2022/11/26/the-evolution-of-catcalling/. 

“Catcalling.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/catcalling. Accessed 15 Feb. 2025.