Anthropologist Profiles: Zora Neale Hurston

Zora Neale Hurston was a novelist, folklorist, and anthropologist.  In fact, she was one of the first African American anthropologists, but her anthropological career is often overshadowed by her contributions to literature.  To remedy this today’s post will address her life and anthropological contributions.

Zora Neale Hurston was born in Alabama in January 1891, but she moved to Eatonville, Florida several years later.  This move is significant because the town was the first Black township.  Born of two former slaves, Hurston grew up never knowing about or experiencing the prejudice and discrimination her parents or her peers experienced.  Unfortunately, when she turned 13 her mother passed away, and shortly thereafter her idyllic childhood ended.  Hurston moved from Eatonville, living with different relatives, taking odd jobs to survive, and never completing high school.  Several of her jobs were serving as a maid, the most significant of which was taking on employment with the Gilbert and Sullivan Troupe.  This is where it is believed she fell in love with literature, which initiated her desire to return to school.

At age 26 the opportunity to earn her high school diploma was presented to her, but there was a catch: she was too old.  She lied about her age, claiming to be ten years younger (a lie that she carried with her for the remainder of her life).  She completed high school, followed by attending Barnard College, where she studied under the father of modern anthropology, Franz Boas.  Boas inspired Hurston to pursue studies of African American culture and folklore, and he encouraged her to return to Eatonville to conduct her research.  Shortly thereafter she published her first anthropological works, which included a book titled, Mules and Men, and several articles in the Journal of American Folklore.

In 1935, after a brief period away from academia Hurston returned to her educational pursuits by enrolling in Columbia University on a Rosenwald Foundation fellowship.  Her interests, which remained on African culture, moved from African American culture to Afro-Caribbean and Afro-Latino cultures.  She began to study Hoodoo and Voodoo throughout the American South and Caribbean, particularly in Haiti.  She eventually published her studies in the work titled, Tell My Horse. 

Hurston left her anthropological studies shortly thereafter, focusing exclusively on her literature career.  She published several stories and plays, working with several notable writers of the Harlem Renaissance, including Langston Hughes.  Unfortunately, her literature career never took off, and she never returned to anthropology.  She eventually passed away in 1960 from a stroke.  Her contributions to anthropology and literature were nearly lost, but a renewed interest in her work came about ten years after her death, which is why she is known today.

References

Biography.com Editors.  2017.  “Zora Neale Hurston Biography.com.”  The Biography.com website

 

No Author.  2017.  “Hurston’s Life.”  Zora Neale Hurston Digital Archive.

 

Sonnet Media.  2015.  “About.”  Zora Neale Hurston: The Official Website.

 

The Origins of Language

Language, the system of communication used exclusively by humans, is a key element of any culture.  Language allows people to take the sounds they make and associated them with abstract ideas and meanings.  This then allows for the expression of their feelings, thoughts, ideas among one another, as well as teach culture to anyone willing to listen and learn.  Language, which takes both verbal and nonverbal forms, is incredibly important to humans, and it is only when we are unable to use it, due to an actual loss of voice or due to not speaking the same language, do we realize that. 

As language is a fundamental part of what it means to be human there is an entire area of anthropological study dedicated to understanding it: linguistic anthropology.  Linguistic anthropologists focus on various aspects of language, from its forms, its uses, its sounds, its histories, and everything in between and more.  These are the topics that are typically addressed in introductory anthropology classes, but what is often times neglected is the origins of language.  Where did it come from?  How is that we, as human beings, are able to speak?  Many other species, particularly those biologically closest to us (nonhuman primates), cannot speak but still have some rudimentary form of communication.  What makes humans so different?  Today’s blog post is going to address those topics by discussing the biological evolution of language.

Figure 1: Cranial morphological features that allow for language use

 

Scholars, specifically paleoanthropologists and linguists, recognize that specific anatomical features must be present for language to be present.  These features are found in the brain, mouth, and throat.  A larger, more complex brain is necessary, and the the placement of the larynx and tongue allow for the  manipulation of sounds to provide us a means of communicating more complexly (Figure 1).  These are not the only things that must be present for language to exist, though.  We know this because just about any animal can make sounds, but there is a key element that allows species to create and use language.  This is a gene, the FoxP2 gene.  The FoxP2 gene is credited with allowing humans to develop language.  It is found exclusively in human species, including in some of our human ancestors’ genes (e.g. Neanderthals).  This exclusivity is part of the reason why humans are the only species on the planet who can communicate through language.

Because we know that language existed in our human ancestors we know it is not an exclusively Homo sapiens trait, so when exactly did our human ancestors first begin developing language?  Well, that’s a little tricky because when we search for language in the past we rely on its written forms to identify it.  As not all cultures-living or deceased-have written language we cannot discount its existence, particularly among our hominid ancestors who practiced very rudimentary cultures.  Therefore, what we look for are the key anatomical elements.  Paleoanthropologists first find these in Homo erectus/ergaster species (Figure 2).  The morphology of head and neck of this species is suggestive of ability to talk as it is similar to our own, and brain size and morphological traits also suggest speaking was capable.  Unfortunately, we are unable at this time to test the genetic composition of this species because no viable DNA has been collected.  While we cannot know for sure if they had the ability to speak or to what extent their language existed scholars do believe they were able to and were using language at some level given the increase in cultural traits we see among them, including controlled use of fire, more complex tool creation and use, and other cultural traits.  

Figure 2: Homo erectus/ergaster may have used language based on their cultural and biological evolution

So why did we learn to speak?  That is a very important question.  Scholars believe that the evolution of speech allowed humans to better survive in their environments.  Humans are not particularly fast, strong, or fierce.  We are actually pretty squishy and easy prey to predators, particularly the much larger predators of the past that our hominid ancestors had to contend with.  Language may have been an evolutionary advantage that assisted in our survival.  Through language we can communicate and teach ideas, concepts, and methods to others.  Language is not necessarily needed as we know that primates can and have taught tool making skills to other primates, but language definitely makes it easier.  Additionally, Sapir and Whorf identified how they believe language is tied to our thought processes, and while their hypothesis is and remains controversial it does give us pause in regards to the influence language has and how its invention may have provided our hominid ancestors a new and better means of understanding our environments. 

    

Whatever the reason the evolution of language has allowed humans to be unique and provided us with an evolutionary advantage.  Language is a complex means of communication that allows us to trade and share ideas and beliefs.  We use language to negotiate our social world, which is very much culturally constructed.  Without language we may not be who we, humans, are today, but none of that could have happened without the biological adaptations that made language possible.

References

Gezon, L., & Kottak, C. (2014).  Cultural Anthropology McGraw-Hill.

 

Jurmain, Robert, Kilgore, Lynn, Trevathan, Wenda, Ciochon, Russell L. Introduction to Physical

Anthropology. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 2014. Print.

Stein, P.L. & Rowe, B.M. (2014). Introduction to Human Evolution and Prehistory.  United States of America: McGraw Hill Education.

Welsch, R.L. & L.A. Vivanco.  (2015).  Cultural Anthropology: Asking Questions About Humanity.  Oxford University Press.