Economic Anthropology Profile: Horticulturalists

The Yanomami of Brazil and Venezuela are modern horticulturalists.  (Image Source: Survival International)

 
There are various types of modes of subsistence, or means of producing, procuring, and distributing food, that human groups can utilize.  Yehudi Cohen identified five types, which include foraging, horticulture, pastoralism, agriculture, and industrialism.  These were ranked by complexity, with foraging being considered the simplest and industrialism the most complex, but each mode of subsistence has its own levels of complexities.  Today's blog post will discuss the second level on Cohen's typology: horticultural societies.  

Horticulture is a non-intensive cultivation technique that requires the use of simple tools that developed around 12,000 years ago when domestication of plants and animals began.  Horticulture is also referred to as slash-and-burn or swidden agriculture.  It is considered the foundations of agricultural production, but it is not the same.  There are key differences, including the cyclical and non-continuous use of crop land that characterizes horticulture.  Land is typically cleared through burning the native vegetation to provide nutrients to the soil, and then the land is cultivated and harvested over a one to two year period before being abandoned due to the land no longer being usable.  Horticultural practices are very labor intensive and produce small harvests.  As such, there is a high likelihood of crop failure, which fuels inter-village and small-scale raiding.  These initiatives are often led by a village head or big man, who acts as an informal leader of the group.          

There are two types of horticulturalists: those who remain completely sedentary and those who are semi-mobile.  For the former horticulturalists travel further and further each year to their horticultural fields, whereas the latter will move their villages closer and closer to the fields as they move.  In either case horticulturalists are considered largely sedentary who live in small tribal societies.  These groups are largely organized by descent-group membership, which is in part why no formal governments or social classes exist in these societies.  There are the foundations for social stratification present in these societies as prestige is based on ability, age, gender, and personal traits or abilities, which define importance for certain individuals. 


Bibliography

Gezon, L., & Kottak, C. (2014).  Cultural Anthropology McGraw-Hill  

Welsch, R.L. & L.A. Vivanco.  (2015).  Cultural Anthropology: Asking Questions About Humanity.  Oxford University Press.

What is the World’s Oldest Profession?

Chances are that if you were to ask around to family, friends, or the public at large what the world’s oldest profession is you would receive several different answers.  A popular answer is the notion that prostitution is the world’s oldest profession, but this may not actually be the case.  Unfortunately, there is no specific answer to this question because the definitions of the term profession do vary, as do when specifically human culture is identified as first starting, but for the purposes of this blog post profession is going to be defined as a job that requires specialized training and/or skill and earliest culture is attributed to our hominid ancestors in the genus Homo.  Today’s blog post is dedicated to discussing some potential candidates for the world’s oldest profession, which include hunter, farmer,  and artist.

Candidate 1: Hunter

Artistic rendition of Neanderthals hunting (Image Source: Google Images)

Hunting seems like it is something that would be natural to humans, particularly before the development of agriculture, but hunting, while commonly utilized by our earliest ancestors and still practiced today, is a skill that is learned and requires a great deal of training.  Several hominid ancestors are associated with potentially hunting, including Homo erectus, but it is not until the discovery of the atlatl, a spear thrower, with Neandethals that hunting was confirmed among our hominid ancestors.  Hunting most likely evolved from scavenging activities that are associated with earlier hominid ancestors (the earliest of which was Homo habilis).  It does appear that Neanderthals most likely developed this skill on their own (despite confirmed contact with Archaic Homo sapiens).  Further evidence also provides insights into Neanderthal hunting practices, which show deliberate selection of specific prey.  Neanderthals hunted a variety of species, including large and small game, as well as terrestrial and marine animals, but it does appear that they stuck to local game.   

Candidate 2: Farmer

Artistic rendition of early agriculture (Image Source: OSU)

About 12,000 years ago early Homo sapiens began to manipulate their environments in order to cultivate specific plants that they wanted to eat.  It is unclear as to why specifically humans began to cultivate the land and plants around them, but it is believed that humans experimented with the environment to produce agriculture.  Agriculture is another learned skill that requires creative thought, astute observations, and consistent effort to make this work worthwhile.  The earliest evidence of agriculture is found in the Levant in the Middle East, and this profession spread across the Old and New Worlds from there.  The advent of agriculture led to several new cultural innovations, such as religion and economics, as well as occupations associated with them (e.g. religious officiant and banker).

Candidate 3: Artist

Painted and perforated shell associated with Neanderthals (Image Source: Google Images)

Our early human ancestors are considered to be brutish and imbecilic, but that was not actually the case.  Our early human ancestors did not have a great deal of time available to them as they were having to constantly work toward their survival, but some of them did have the time and did take the effort to create some of the world's earliest pieces of art.  Cave paintings, sculptures (such as the Venus figurines), and personal adornments are considered some of the earliest pieces of art associated with anatomically modern humans, but Neanderthals created several different pieces of art, including jewelry and a flute that still plays music.  While art is popularly considered something that is easy by some or a natural skill by others it is known that art can be taught and learned by people, and this may have been the case among our Neanderthal ancestors.

So now I want to put this question back on to you?  What do you think is the world's oldest profession and why?  Leave your thoughts in the comments section.  :)

Bibliography

Feder, Kenneth and Park M. Human Antiquity: An Introduction to Physical Anthropology and Archeology, McGraw-Hill.  

Jurmain, Robert, Kilgore, Lynn, Trevathan, Wenda, Ciochon, Russell L. Introduction to Physical

Anthropology. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 2014. Print. 

Spotlight on Students: Cultural Relativism/Ethnocentrism Assignment

The following post features exemplary work from my Anth 101: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology students.  For this assignment on cultural relativism & ethnocentrism students were tasked with analyzing these viewpoints on a fictional situation involving a Nkisi statue. Please acknowledge their hard work by letting them know how well they did and how much you enjoy their work.  :)


By Ruby Silvia

Culture is a varying factor in every society on the earth. Each culture has its own set of values, norms and beliefs that it lives by. (Meriam-Webster) Every culture also has symbols that are held sacred that may not be outwardly obvious to someone of a different culture. The Nkisi is a religious symbol of people from West Africa. (Khan Academy)  For someone who is unfamiliar with the significance of the symbol, it can be easily misunderstood. When approaching a new aspect of another culture there are many ways it can be approached. Two of these ways are ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. This paper will discuss the meaning of those two terms, explore how a newcomer may react to a Nkisi statue from each of those view points and compare the situation as viewed from each approach.

Ethnocentrism is the idea that the beliefs and customs held by our own culture is the best and right way to live while simultaneously believing that any other culture’s contrasting way of life is wrong. (Welsch & Vivanco 2015, p. 11) Viewing another culture’s rituals or beliefs in this manner can make it easy to misunderstand and potentially be offended by that which differs from your own. The ethnocentric response to the scenario provided about the Nkisi statue might first lead someone to believe the statue represented a form of voodoo or witchcraft. It may appear that my new roommate was a follower of dark magic and the statue needs to be removed. Coming from a culture where the only religious tolerance seems to be for those of the Christian or other mainstream faiths that follow the word of God, this would appear to be a threat to that belief system.

Cultural relativism is the idea that you should approach another person’s culture and beliefs free from preconceived judgments and absorb the information from the perspective a person within that culture. (Welsch & Vivanco 2015, p. 12) This way of viewing and learning about another culture gives you the best opportunity to truly understand the beliefs and customs, even if they are vastly different from your own. Responding to the statue from a point of view of cultural relativism, the best approach would be to ask the new roommate about the statue and what it represents. Try to listen to the explanation with an open mind and set aside the first impression that this statue has anything to do with voodoo or dark magic. When it is understood that the statue really represents positive energy for the owner, it would be easier to accept it in the apartment. Acceptance does not mean that you have to agree and like the statue; but that you understand the importance it holds for the owner and can appreciate the value perceived by the owner.

When being confronted with a belief or symbol that is unfamiliar, most people would likely respond in a mixture of these two ways. Generally the first reaction is that of an ethnocentric background, assessing what you see or hear and comparing that to what you already know. My first view of the Nkisi statue reminded me of movies I have watched with voodoo dolls and pins sticking out of them.  Just because the first reaction had a negative connection does not mean it is the only way to react. I would next want to know what the statue was and why my new roommate owned such a statue. Only by asking questions can we be an informed and alert society. Looking at the statue after reading the true meaning of the symbol, I still see a voodoo doll, but that is not the only thing I see and I find it fascinating the positive meaning behind the statue.

No one culture is better than another. Every culture has merit and meaning. Just because we do not all follow the same belief systems or the same morals, does not make our society superior or inferior to another. This paper has explored the different ways a scenario can be viewed from both an ethnocentric and a culturally relative stance. It has explored the benefits and limitations of responding in both manners and brought to light the idea that generally people respond in a mixture of the two.

Works Cited

Culture. (n.d.). Retrieved June 8, 2016, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture

Welsch, R. L., & Vivanco, L. A. (2015). Cultural anthropology: Asking questions about humanity. New York, NY.

"Khan Academy." Khan Academy. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 June 2016.

By Samantha Bond
 

            When different cultures meet, there are often many reactions to the differences between the people. These interactions are filled with many various emotions, both negative and positive, from fear and anxiety to excitement and curiosity. Others judge and close their minds to the unfamiliar beliefs of other cultures. Some try to understand and accept the diversity. The two reactions to a new culture are known as ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. The reactions of the two tenants to the Nkisi idol are examples of these two responses.

            Ethnocentrism is “the assumption that one’s own way of doing things is correct, while dismissing other people’s practices or views as wrong or ignorant” (Welsch). Ethnocentrism is often a negative reaction of one person toward another person from a different culture. The ethnocentric approach is often seen as an intolerant attitude toward different cultures. Although ethnocentrism is often seen as negative, there are some positive aspects. People from the same culture will feel a special bond with each other especially when exposed to another culture.

The first tenant’s reaction to the Nkisi is an ethnocentric response. According to Dr. Boston’s blog the “Minkisi, which are now appropriately referred to as power figures, fertility figures, or dance staffs, were used to cure illnesses and disease, solidifying social and political alliances, and/or predispose an individual or entity to harm or assistance” (Boston). The tenant does not see or understand how the Nkisi idol has a protective quality for the student just as the Saints have the same sentiment for Catholics. The reaction of finding the Nkisi disgusting and that it should be destroyed is a negative and close minded response. The first tenant believes that the foreign exchange student’s culture is inferior and the student should adapt to the culture of where they are going to school. The second tenant’s reaction is an example of cultural relativism.

            The other reaction to an encounter between two different cultures is cultural relativism. Cultural relativism is “the moral and intellectual principle that one should withhold judgment about seemingly strange or exotic beliefs and practices” (Welsch). Cultural relativism is about accepting other people’s beliefs whether you agree with them or not. The cultural relativistic approach is often seen as a tolerance attitude toward different cultures. Cultural relativism is a more positive approach than ethnocentrism but there are times when complete acceptance can be harmful, such as total acceptance of practices which violate human rights.

            The second tenant was more open minded and was able to take a more culturally relativistic attitude toward the Nkisi. The second tenant saw the Nkisi as having a similar protective quality for the foreign exchange student as the Virgin Mary is for Catholics. Even though the second tenant may not have fully agreed with the foreign exchange student’s belief in the Nkisi, he or she saw there was no harm in letting the student keep the figure. The Nkisi does not violate any human rights, therefore a cultural relativistic approach is not harmful for anyone involved. The reaction of the second tenant was one of equality and not of judgment toward the different culture.

            I believe in taking a more cultural relativistic approach to this situation and any other event involving a culture different from my own. My first reaction to this situation was anger toward the first tenant for being so unaccepting toward the foreign exchange student’s beliefs. I was glad to find there was someone who was willing to stand up for the foreign exchange student. I would have reacted the same way as the second tenant. I try to take a cultural relativistic approach to situations, news articles, and cultural practices. Often by taking a cultural relativistic viewpoint to a situation, you are opening yourself up to new ideas and beliefs which may change your perspective of your own culture.

            In this situation between the two tenants and the foreign exchange student and his Nkisi figure, there are two clear examples of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. The two vastly different reactions were one of superiority and the other of equality. Both methods of viewing a culture have their positive and negative aspects. The dangers lie in taking a stance in one extreme of either cultural relativism or ethnocentrism.

Bibliography

Boston, Dr. Christine Elisabeth. The Truth of the Nkisi. 23 January 2016. Blog. 6 June 2016. <http://humerusrevelations.blogspot.com/2016/01/the-truth-of-nkisi.html>.

Welsch, Robert L. and Luis A. Vivanco. Cultural Anthropology Asking Questions About Humanity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.