Spotlight on Students: Social Institutions Assignment

The following is a post dedicated to showcasing the work of one of my Anth 101 students.  Students were tasked with comparing three social institutions of a foreign culture to the same social institutions in American culture.  Please show your appreciation and support for this amazing work by an exceptional student.  :)

Inuit Man and his sled dogs (Windows to the Universe)

By: Charina Molina

            The world is culturally diverse place, but each culture contains key aspects that are shared by all. It is important to note that it is with those key aspects where a culture is able to define itself and create a culture that is unique to that area of the world. The Inuit of the Artic can be found in areas of the United States and Canada. This particular culture group is in many ways diverse when it comes to foodways, political structure, and features of gender. The culture in the United States, similarly, is significantly different than the Inuit way of life. Each culture brings new ways of examining culture in a particular part of the world: North America. It is with these two cultures that one can examine the diversity and dynamic aspect of two different cultures. It is also possible to examine the similarities amongst these two groups as they are very close in location. Both the cultures of the Inuit and the United States express differences and similarities in their values, norms, and traditions-aspects of what defines culture. 

            Both the Inuit and American people are based on the same continent: North America. Each culture group, however, has adapted differently to its geographical area, which has led each to diverge in some aspects of their culture. The Inuit have adapted to the weather and the conditions of living in the Arctic Tundra. Specifically, these groups can be found in the Northwest Territories, Quebec, and Labrador in Canada. They can also be found in the above tree line in Alaska, the Inupiat and Yupik, as they are called. Living in these areas has affected the way individuals function as a society, which ultimately affects the culture. They have invented tools and gear that have helped them survive. They have built their homes out of snow (also known as igloos), and some of their beliefs are based on the aurora. They hunt for food and get around on sleds made out of animal bones and their skins. Inuit life has since changed by the twentieth century, but traditions such as storytelling, mythology, and dancing have remained the same (Gardiner).

The American culture, however, is very diverse. It started with the population of aboriginal people that settled parts of North America originally. As soon as European settlers came, the culture of the United States became a melting pot of various cultures. The general aspects of the culture, such as clothing and music, change all the time. The people of the United States act in an informal and direct way. Despite that, the people of the United States are friendly. The culture centers itself around individualism, self-reliance, and egalitarianism (“International”). Each of these cultures are unique but can be similar in many ways.

            Foodways in each culture differ in how the food is obtained, but there are some consistencies with what are staples in the diet. The Inuit live in places where plants do not typically grow, so they hunt for their food (Gardiner). In this way, they are a foraging society. They search out their food, which consists of fish, walruses, seals, whales, etc. They do not overuse their resources as they use the animal’s bones and skin for tools, sleds, and clothing. Their diet “cures illnesses, makes one strong, and provides a level of energy and stamina” (Searles).  In comparison, the United States uses industrial agriculture as a means of obtaining food. Farmers produce many crops, and there is application of industrial principles. This is prevalent in the United States because it is an industrialized nation (Boston).

Similarly to both cultures, meat is a staple to the diets. Americans enjoy their steak, while the Inuit eat their protein sources because that is what is available to them. These foods show an individual’s identity, particularly in males. In both the Inuit and American culture, it is deemed masculine to eat a lot of protein. Foodways are able to show the development of masculinity in both cultures (MacNeil).

            The gender roles in both the Inuit and American culture are specific as they pertain to the biological sex of the person. With the Inuit culture, however, their gender roles are very much pliable. Because they are a foraging society, their gender roles are the least separate in public-domestic spheres (Boston). These roles are “situational and contextual” (Morgan). For example, if a family does not produce a male child the father will teach his daughters how to hunt. In the United States, “feminity and masculinity are clearly distinguished (and enforced) through the use of formal and informal sanctions” (“Gender”). An example of this is the toys that boys and girls are allowed to play with when they are young. In the United States, it is masculine for a boy to play with cars and airplanes, while girls played with dolls (Boston). People who disturb this social norm are criticized. It is important to note that in both societies that the male is the main provider of the family, while the women take up the job of taking care of the home and family.

            The political structures of each culture group differ. As a foraging group, the Inuit do not have a structured society. Ranks and social classes do not exist. With that, each Inuit tribe cannot be considered a political entity. There are few leadership roles in the Inuit tribes. Because they are politically centered around their families, the eldest male usually assume the role of the head person (“Inuit). In the United States, the government is structured, and the people vote to appoint a leader into office. The President of the United States governs a large mass of people, but he has subordinates in which he dictates his authority to. The President has political power but has shown that it is usually to the interest of the people, not for themselves (Welsch).

            Based on the cultures of both the Inuit and the United States, culture is diverse and dynamic. Its fluidity allows for culture to change over time to adapt to the needs of the people at a specific point in time, although that is subject to change all the time. The definition of culture can be interpreted in various ways, as culture encompasses the arts, fashion, literature, food, etc. of a certain people. It is with the study of culture that anthropologists are able to examine the natural actions of a particular group of people. Additionally, one can study why a particular group acts the way they do in social situations. Anthropologists are then able to see how different cultures interact amongst each other. Culture allows for the investigation of certain behaviors amongst a culture group as well as the beliefs that each culture group holds about particular things.

Works Cited

Boston, C. "Chapter 10: Politics: Cooperation, Conflict, & Power Relations." Reno. 29 Apr. 2016. Lecture.

Boston, C. "Chapter 12: Gender, Sex, and Sexuality: The Lives of Women and Men." Reno. 29 Apr. 2016. Lecture.

Boston, C. "Chapter 7: Foodways, Finding, Making, & Eating Food." Reno. 29 Apr. 2016. Lecture.

Gardiner, Lisa. "Inuit Culture, Traditions, and History." Inuit Culture, Traditions, and History. Windows to the Future, 5 June 2007. Web. 29 Apr. 2016. <http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/polar/inuit_culture.html>.

"Gender Roles and Gender Stratification." Gender Roles and Gender Stratification. People.vcu.edu, n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2016. <http://www.people.vcu.edu/~jmahoney/gender101.htm#usgender>.

"International Student Services." Lewis University Student Services Culture of the United States. Lewis University, n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2016. <https://www.lewisu.edu/studentservices/iss/usaculture.htm>.

"Inuit / Eskimo Society." Inuit / Eskimo Society. Astronomy.pomona.edu, n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2016. <http://www.astronomy.pomona.edu/archeo/alaska/eskimo.html>.

MacNeil, John Grant. "1.2 Background of the Problem." The Construction of Identity Among Inuit Men in Ottawa Through Foodways (2015): 3. Curve.carleton.ca. Curve.carleton.ca. Web. 29 Apr. 2016. <https://curve.carleton.ca/system/files/etd/18dc8725-bb4c-46c1-b127-3a834e804e69/etd_pdf/e5cdd9444cb9b6fe6ee39979762a75a0/macneil-theconstructionofidentityamonginuitmeninottawa.pdf>.

Morgan, Clara. "The Arctic: Gender Issues." The Arctic: Gender Issues. Parliament of Canada, 24 Oct. 2016. Web. 29 Apr. 2016. <http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/prb0809-e.htm#gender>.

Searles, Edmund. "Difference Through Diet, Property, and Time." Inuit Identity in the Canadian Arctic (n.d.): 247. Web. 29 Apr. 2016.

Welsch, Robert Louis, and Luis Antonio Vivanco. Cultural Anthropology: Asking Questions About Humanity. New York: Oxford UP, 2015. Print.

Why It Matters: Exploring the Importance of Non-Human Primate Conservation

They appear to be cute, cuddly, and oh-so-adorable, but how much do you really know about non-human primates?  They exist on almost every continent around the globe, but despite their wide geographical distribution several nonhuman primate species are nearly extinct or are considered critically endangered.  The loss of these creatures will have negative impacts not just on the local environments where they exist but also on a global scale, which many people do not realize.  Today's blog post is dedicated to informing you, the reader, about the problems faced by nonhuman primates that are leading to their extinction, as well as how you can assist in curbing and potentially stopping this problem from continuing.

Endangered Nonhuman Primate: Tonkin Snub Nosed Monkey

Non-human primates exist across the globe and are primarily found in Africa, Asia, as well as Central and South America.  They exist in specialized ecological niches, ranging from Savannah to tropical rain forest environments (as well as several environments in between).  Each nonhuman primate species serves a very specific role in their environment, and the primary purposes include their roles as plant pollinators and seed dispersers.  In addition, they also provide a food source to natural predators existing in those environments.  Overall, nonhuman primates play a key function in their environment, and their loss will have detrimental impacts that will be felt throughout the ecosystem, which is part of the reason why we need to fight to keep them from becoming extinct.

Unfortunately, there are several different reasons for why non-human primates are being driven to extinction.  Reasons can be very species specific, such as is the case for the Aye-Aye who is killed due to superstitious notions of how they gesture being a curse that can only be broken by its death, but there are several exploitation factors that are common among all nonhuman primate species. These include:

• Environmental Degradation:  Legal and illegal mining, forestry, agriculture, etc. developments are depleting the natural environment that nonhuman primates live and exist in, which is limiting their ability to survival.  In addition, many humans who work in these industries will kill nonhuman primates as they are seen as pests who are getting in the way (e.g. nonhuman primates who seek food in agricultural fields or who seek refuge in a tree that is about to be cut down).  
• Bushmeat Trade:  Some local groups do rely on nonhuman primates for a food source, but in these cases the practice has been in effect for generations and sustainable hunting practices that do not overuse or over-hunt the nonhuman primates have been established.  The bushmeat trade, however, is different from these practices as it is the intentional and purposeful hunting (and typically over-hunting) of nonhuman primates in order to meet the desires of individuals willing to pay top dollar for exotic goods.  Related to this is poaching of these creatures for the purposes of acquiring trophies or furs that are illegal bought and sold.
• Medicinal Purposes: This matter is actually two fold: first, many nonhuman primates are illegally captured and exported for the purposes of medical testing of life saving drugs.  There are debates regarding how many primates are actually necessary for such testing purposes, and how effective some of the testing strategies are in regards to when in the process they are administered (i.e. too early when it is known that the tested animal will perish as a result of the test).  Second, there are individuals who believe that by consuming specific parts of the animal or having specific parts available to them that it can assist them medically (e.g. through increased virility, strength, etc.).  Although there are no scientific data to support these notions these folk medicine practices continue, leading to the illegal capture and deaths of many nonhuman primate species.
• Illegal Pet Trade: Many people find owning exotic animals attractive and elect to purchase wild animals as a result.  This puts many animals, particularly nonhuman primates, at risk of extinction because most often the animals that are sought as pets are young.  How does one remove a infant or child nonhuman primate from its mother?  By killing her, thereby orphaning the infant/child, and facilitating its quick capture and release into the custody of its new owner.  This leads to a lack of biological diversity in the nonhuman primate community, which is integral in the species overall survival, as well as a drastic decrease in the numbers of the species as the females, the producers of offspring that keep the species going, are killed off.

Endangered Nonhuman Primate: Slender Loris

It is important to keep nonhuman primate species alive, and several different efforts exist in order to stave off the extinction of several critically endangered and nearly extinct species.  But there are efforts that you, as a non-anthropologist, can participate in:

• Be aware of the problems and educate yourself on the issues.  Nonhuman primates may not exist in your area, but it does not mean that they are any less important in protecting and saving.  Once you understand the issues you can choose to be an advocate by informing others of what you have learned.  You can also elect to write local and international politicians and politically driven organizations about the importance of nonhuman primate conservation issues.  Related to this you can also purposefully vote for politicians who are passionate and well informed on conservation and environmental issues.  
• You can also make monetary contributions to any of the several reputable organizations that are working on solving these problems.  If you are either uncomfortable with or unable to give money to an organization you can find out other ways of supporting them by inquiring with them.
• You can also limit the consumption of goods that are endangering the environments of nonhuman primates.  Ethically and sustainably obtained products, such as palm oil, exist, and you should seek them out over other products that cannot make that claim or back it up with evidence.
• Do not purchase wild animals.  Wild animals are just that-wild!  They may look cute and docile when they are young, but they are most likely going to grow up and act on their instincts, which often ends with tragedy for either the owner, the animal, or both.  Various news agencies have publicized such incidents in recently years, such as the case of the woman who was mauled by her pet chimpanzee.  Also, several species cannot be successfully rehabilitated and released back into the wild once they are held in captivity, so the argument that one is saving the creatures by keeping them as pets is null and void.  Furthermore, it is illegal to keep any endangered animal as a pet.
• Do not take photos with captive animals at substandard zoos, carnivals, etc. be it domestically or internationally.  You are inadvertently assisting in the illegal pet trade, and many of these animals are treated poorly by their handlers, meaning you are also assisting in abuses against the animals.
• Do not eat bushmeat.  The old adage "I'll try anything once" need not apply here because even if you are only tasting you have to consider how the meat was acquired-by killing an entire animal.

While they may not be local or a popular cause saving nonhuman primates from extinction important cause, and one that you can easily assist in.  Consider what you can do-be it small or large.  Any effort is worthwhile for this cause.

Learn more about endangered primates here, here, here, and here.

References

Actman, J.  2016.  "Why You Shouldn't Share That Cute Lemur Video"  National Geographic. 

No Author.  2014.  Neotropical Primate Conservation Website. 

No Author.  No Date.  Primate Conservation, Inc.

No Author.  No Date.  IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group.

Gift Giving Guide: Anthropology Style 5.0

Tis the season for graduations and other gift giving celebrations.  As such the series of gift giving posts continues with anthropologically themed gifts for the anthropologists (or interested individuals) you may know in your life.  Check out these amazing gift ideas!

For the Cultural Anthropologist

Margaret Mead is a famous cultural anthropologist who is widely known and quoted throughout the discipline.  This pillow is an excellent choice for the cultural anthropologist you may know as this Margaret Mead quote is both inspirational and on point.  It is available through WiseOldeOwl.

For the Physical Anthropologist

Physical anthropologists/evolutionary biologists will enjoy this versatile gift, which works for all sorts of different beverages.  Plus, it covers a wide breadth of evolutionary species.  Check it out through CeramicGoddess.

For the Linguistic Anthropologist

If you happen to know someone who is interested in language and culture or more specifically linguistic anthropology then this gift may be perfect!  This upcycled hardcover journal works for many purposes, which you or the gift receiver can personalize.  For sale through CognitiveSurplus.

For the Archaeologist

Bring a little light to the life of the archaeologist you happen to know with this Egyptian inspired lamp shade.  It comes in a variety of sizes, as well as two types for either ceiling or desk lamps.  Best for those interested in Egyptology but acceptable for those interested in mythology, religion, state level societies, and more.  Ships through FattadaMamma.

When Worlds Collide: Understanding the Difference Between Creole vs Pidgin Languages

Language is formally defined as a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar.  This definition is limited because it does not include nonverbal communication (addressed here), which is an additional dimension of language.  Language is a fundamental part of culture because, as with all aspects of culture, it is learned, transmitted across the generations, and is real as well as symbolic at the same time.  As culture changes so does language, which makes language a key subject of study by cultural and linguistic anthropologists.  The study of language can provide us various insights into culture, particularly cultural change through cultural contact.  When two or more cultural groups who speak radically different langauge come in contact a phenomenon known as pidgin language is created.  This is the topic of today's blog post, which explain and distinguish between pidgin and creole languages.

When cultural groups come in contact it is natural that they would want to communicate with each other, but this communication can be and often is stymied by the inability to communicate through a common language.  When this happens both groups may resort to learning each others' language or at least elements of each others' language in order to facilitate communication.  Sometimes when this happens the groups no longer speak their own languages exclusively but instead turn to this mixed language, which develops into a pidgin language.  A pidgin language is a mixed language with simplified grammar with its vocabulary borrowed from one language but the grammar from another.  There are typically no native speakers of pidgin languages because the language is in its early developmental phases.  Examples of pidgin languages include Hawaiian Creole English (an admixture of English and Native Hawaiian), Chinglish (a defunct pidgin that was a mixture of English and Chinese), and Nefamese (a mixture of various native Indian [country] languages).

As pidgin languages develop and continue to be used they may eventually become creole languages, which are languages born of mixed origins that develop from the complex blending of two or more parent languages that existed as the common languages for various ancestral groups.  Creole languages have native languages, whereas pidgins do not.  As well, creole languages have distinctive grammatical structures that typically resemble the parent languages.  Because of the solidification of Creole languages as formal languages they can be spoken, written, and learned among native and non-native speakers.  Examples of creole languages include Cajun (of the southern United States), Saramacca (of Suriname), and Kinubi (of Uganda).

So while pidgins and creole languages are distinctively different they are still related.  They are demonstrations of the dynamic and stable nature of language, as well as how cultural contact leads to various different changes, specifically to language.  In our ever expanding and globalized world more pidgins may develop, with the potential of creole languages eventually developing.

Reference

Welsch, Robert Louis, and Luis Antonio Vivanco.  Cultural Anthropology Asking Questions about Humanity. New York: Oxford UP, 2015.

Beauty in the "Beasts": Ancient Perceptions of Genetic Disorders

Today’s blog post is dedicated to my Anth 102 students, who were tasked with completing a service learning assignment as part of their course requirements.  For this assignment they were to create a teaching/learning tool on a topic related to Mendelian Genetics.  The following is my contribution to this initiative.

Biology and culture intersect in a variety of different ways.  The most common means of intersection is the cultural preference toward certain biological characteristics.  For example, blonde hair and blue eyes is considered beautiful in many modern cultures, although both characteristics are randomly inherited based on the alleles present in each contributing parent.  Much like today, people in the past placed importance and preference on specific traits, although they are not traits that most modern peoples would find preferential.  Today’s blog post will explore ancient perceptions of specific genetic disorders, and the ancient Egyptians, Olmec, and Inca will be the subject of this discussion.

Ancient Egyptians & Achondroplasia

Achondroplasia, popularly known as “dwarfism”, is a genetic disorder that presents as short stature and limbs in afflicted individuals.  Achondroplasia is inherited through an autosomal dominant chromosome, which means that individuals need only one copy of the allele to have the condition.  This situation, where individuals ­­­carry only one copy of the chromosome, is biologically favored as individuals who carry two copies typically are stillborn or die shortly after birth.  This condition is caused by a mutation of a specific gene, known as the FGFR3 gene, and because of the this, it is common for two individuals who do not have achondroplasia to produce a child with achondroplasia.  Because of the automsomal dominance nature of this trait there is also an increased likelihood that the offspring of two parents with achondroplasia will also have this condition but could still produce offspring without the condition if they pass on the recessive, non-affected chromosome.

Figure 1: Bas relief of Bes, an Egyptian god with achondroplasia (Image Source)

 

Views of those with achondroplasia do vary within modern societies, although there is a history of them being treated poorly in American culture.  In ancient Egyptian culture, individuals with achondroplasia were revered as evidenced by iconographic and historical records.  Their condition was not considered a medical disorder based on the lack of mention of the condition in Egyptian medical texts.  Individuals with achondroplasia were employed in special positions, such as personal attendants to the Pharaohs and noble citizens, animal tenders, jewelers, entertainers, and midwives.  This was because these individuals were considered to be manifestations of the primary god, the Sun god, Ra.  In addition, two of the lesser gods, Ptah and Bes (Figure 1), were depicted with this condition, further supporting the notion that individuals with achondroplasia were celebrated.  Overall, these individuals were not shunned from society but instead embraced and celebrated.

Ancient Olmec and Down’s Syndrome

Down’s syndrome is a genetic condition caused by having an extra chromosome.  Typically, humans have 46 chromosomes, but individuals with Down’s syndrome have an additional copy of the 21^st chromosome.  It is uncertain how specifically Down’s syndrome is passed on to offspring, but the advanced age of the mother is believed to increase the likelihood of this condition existing in offspring.  Individuals with Down’s syndrome typically have diminished intellect, as well as physical features, including flattened faces, broad noses, slanted eyes, shorter stature, and small hands and feet.

 

Figure 2: Were Jaguar Child Sculpture (Image Source)

 

The Olmec culture existed in Central America from 1500 BC to AD 300.  It is a culture characterized by various religious cults, the most prolific of which centered around the jaguar.  Jaguars were considered sacred among the Olmec, a trend consistent with later cultures (e.g. the Maya and Aztecs), and several jaguar-like sculptures have been discovered and are associated with the culture.  The most common is that of a child with feline characteristics (Figure 2).  Scholars analyzing the sculptures’ features have identified similarities between them and the physical features of individuals with Down’s Syndromes.  Features in the sculpture that are identified as being linked to Down’s syndrome include the slanted eyes, puffy faces, downward drawn lower lips, and broad noses.  It is believed that the Olmec believed that individuals with Down’s syndrome were the offspring of jaguar-human sexual relations, specifically that of a relationship between a jaguar-deity and human woman, and therefore individuals with Down’s syndrome were held in high esteem.

 

Ancient Inca & Cleft Lip

Cleft lip is the lack of fusion of the skin that makes up the lip.  Cleft lip can occur on either side of the lip or in the center.  There is no common incidence of the location of the cleft lip.  It is unclear what specifically causes cleft lip, although it is believed that both genetic and environmental factors lead to this condition.  Individuals with cleft lip often have problems eating, as well as deficiencies linked to proper dental development.

Figure 3: Inca Blackware pottery depicting cleft lip (Google Images)

 Individuals born with a cleft lip were believed to have been blessed by lightning and therefore were considered godly and special among ancient Inca people (Figure 3).  Those with cleft lip were reserved for special sacrificial rituals honoring lightning and sacred mountain huacas (sacred places).  This may not seem like a benefit in our modern contexts, but to the Inca becoming a sacrifice was a great honor, one reserved for a sacred few.  While this practice is associated specifically with the ancient Inca there is evidence of the veneration of individuals with cleft palate occurring among earlier groups, such as the Moche.  It is believed that the Moche identified individuals with cleft palate being the children of the lightning, and these individuals were treated accordingly, with both admiration and fear. 

Bibliography

Dasen, V.  1988.  “Dwarfism in Egypt and Classical Antiquity: Iconography and Medical History.”  Medical History 32: 253-276.

Kozma, C.  2006.  “Historical Review: Dwarfs in Ancient Egypt.”  American Journal of Medical Genetics 140A: 303-311.

Milton, G. and R. Gonzalo.  1974.  “Jaguar Cult—Down’s Syndrome-Were-Jaguar.”  Expedition 16: 33-35.

Murdy, CN.  1981.  “Congenital Deformities and the Olmec Were-Jaguar Motif.”  American Antiquity 46: 861-871.

No Author.  2012.  “Achondroplasia.”  Genetics Home Reference: Your Guide to Understanding Genetic Conditions.  https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/achondroplasia

No Author.  2015.  “Facts About Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate.”  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/cleftlip.html

No Author.  2016.  “Facts About Down’s Syndrome.”  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/DownSyndrome.html

Reeves, C.  2001.  Egyptian Medicine.  Shire Publication LTD: Buckinghamshire.

Staller, J.E. and B. Stross.  2013.  Lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Perspectives.  Oxford University Press: Oxford.