Eat Your Heart Out: An Examination of Aztec Human Sacrifices

The Aztec are an indigenous group of people who controlled a vast Mesoamerican empire for at least two centuries prior to their conquest by the Spanish in 16^th century.  The Aztec empire was characterized by a public education system, extensive trade networks, creation of widespread roadways, state-wide religion, and a large military.  Unfortunately, these great achievements are not what the Aztecs are most popularly known for, and instead it was their sacrificial rituals that they are most remembered for.  This blog post is dedicated to discussing Aztec sacrificial rituals.  Topics that will be discussed include the types of sacrifices, the preferred sacrificial victims, and the potential motivations for these sacrifices. 

The Aztecs are believed to have practiced a number of types of sacrifices.  They were known to practice both animal and human sacrifice, but it appears that human sacrifice was the most popular type of sacrifice.  The Aztecs practiced a variety of different types of human sacrifice.  These types included death by arrows, where individuals were lined up and executed by hundreds of archers who shot them; decapitation, where the head of the victim was removed from the body; drowning; gladiatorial combat, where victims were tied to rocks, given mock weapons, and forced to fight properly clad and weaponized warriors to the death; dying by impact, which involved being thrown or coerced off high temples; squeezing, typically involving victims being wrapped in nets and crushed; and finally through the extraction of the heart.  This latter type of sacrifice appears to have been the most popular, with at least two to ten individuals sacrificed through this method each month in every Aztec city.  This sacrificial method involved the extraction of the still beating heart of the victim who is believed to have witnessed the event.  The body was then removed and dismembered, with various parts of the body being utilized for further ritual purposes. 

The Aztec culture was one that fostered a sense of desire among its members to become sacrificial victims.  To this end there was no limit to the number of individuals who could be recruited as it was one of three ways for individuals to enter a glorious afterlife (with the other two ways being dying in battle or during childbirth).  Men, women, and children (of all ages) were eligible for sacrifice.  The most common sacrificial victims were known as xochimicqui, who were captives of wars.  These prisoners of wars were also used as messengers of the sun as they would be employed to carry messages to the sun god after they were sacrificed.  Slaves and criminals made up the tlaaltilli class of sacrificial victims, while everyday lawful Aztec citizens could participate in the monthly “Flowery Wars” as a means of becoming eligible for sacrifice.  The “Flowery Wars” were ritualized incidences of warfare that enabled the Aztecs to capture symbolic prisoners of war who would later be sacrificed.  Women could volunteer to be sacrificed, as well, whereas children were often sold for the purpose. In either case these individuals would be trained and catered to during the tenure prior to the ritual, which may have been an additional incentive to enter into this situation.

The Aztec sacrifices were very entwined with religious ideologies.  Aztec sacrificial rituals closely mirror the creation and other myths that were central to the Aztec religion.  But how and why those myths were created has been a contentious topic.  One scholar, Michael Harner, believes that the Aztec sacrifices, specifically the removal of the heart, were a means of feeding the Aztec elites.  Harner claims that the Aztec capital existed in an environmentally hazardous area, which did not lend itself to regular production of agricultural crops.  He also points out that the Aztecs did not have any stable beasts of burden or domesticated livestock, which would have provided an additional means of sustenance.  As a result, the Aztec elites may have advocated for cannibalism as a means of providing them a consistent and nutritious food source.  Another scholar, Nathan Young, believes that Aztec ritual sacrifice was a means furthering the agenda of the Aztec elites, who were focused on conquest and expansion of the empire.  The need for prisoners of war to “feed” the gods encouraged warfare, the consequence of which led to conquered peoples and territories.  Young also claims that the institution of sacrifice enabled the elites to control the poor by enticing them to become soldiers as they could rise in the social ranks of the Aztec society by capturing prisoners of war.  In addition, these soldiers were guaranteed the option of having a splendid afterlife if they died during conquest, which would have been an additional means of feeding the military powerhouse that the elites required to meet their goals.   

At the present time, however, it is unclear which of these hypotheses is more supportable in regards to Aztec sacrifices as the Aztec history has been largely destroyed by the Spanish Conquistadors who participated in a campaign to eradicate their culture, as well as the Aztec people.  While this aspect of their culture is poorly understood it appears that Aztec sacrifices played a pivotal role in Aztec culture.   

Bibliography

Harner, M.  1977.  "The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice."  Natural History.  86: 46-51.

Harner, M.  1977.  "The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice."  American Ethnologist.  4: 117-135.


Hassler, P.  1992.  "Human Sacrifice among the Aztecs? A Critical Study."  Die Ziet.  World Press Review.  

Kerkhove, RC.  1994.  “Explaining Aztec Human Sacrifice”  MA Thesis.  University of Queensland.


Kramer, S. 2013.  “Aztec Human Sacrifice”.   MSU Website.


Young, N.  20014.  “Aztec Human Sacrifice: Primitive Fanaticism or Genius of Empire?”  Discoveries p. 112-120.  

 

 

Fair Trade: The What, How, & Why of Equal Exchange

Fair Trade is a popular term that is bantered about quite a bit in various circles.  You may have heard of the term previously, or perhaps this is the first time you are hearing the term.  Either way, many people do not quite understand what fair trade means and represents, as well as the benefits for both producers and consumers that this economic system creates.  This blog post is dedicated to presenting to you, the reader, what fair trade is, its importance to all parties involved, and how you can participate in the fair trade movement.

Fair trade, also referred to as equal exchange, is an economic system that seeks to foster equity in exchange between producers and consumers by ensuring producers are compensated fairly and properly for the work in the production of their goods.  This system is unlike the negative reciprocity that is common in capitalist societies where there is an expectation that one party receives a better deal than the other, who is disadvantaged in some way in the process.  Fair trade rejects this notion by encouraging fair and equitable exchange between producers and consumers. 

The concept of fair trade began in the 1940s and 1950s when small groups started a movement toward equitable exchange among small scale and indigenous producers around the globe.  These groups eventually came together to form the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), an organization that sought to spread the message of fair trade, as well as standardize the requirements of fair trade or equal exchange.  This work has created fair trade guidelines as they exist today, which focus on paying producers fair wages for not only their products but for the work that goes into their construction.  This is, however, only one aspect of the effects of fair trade.  Fair trade also focuses on the abolition of child labor as producers who participate in fair trade must not utilize in child labor.  Fair trade also deals in equitable and nondiscriminatory work place practices, encouraging producers to allow workers to join labor unions, work in safe and healthy environments, and not be discriminated against due to gender, sexual orientation, ability, religion, nationality, race, ethnicity, etc.  Finally, fair trade organizations work with producers in utilizing environmentally sustainable practices, which assists not just in the improvement of the global climate but also allows producers to produce longer as the local resources are not depleted at a rapid rate.  In addition, fair trade organizations also pay Community Development Premiums, which are separate fees that goes into a communal fund that is utilized to educate workers and their children, foster social equality within the local communities, and invest in community development and environmental sustainability.

Fair trade organizations have been diligent in making fair trade products available to consumers in various different venues.  In the past, fair trade products were typically available only in small stores, making them inaccessible to large portions of the population, but today fair trade products are available in many different places, ranging from small independent stores to large mainstream retailers.  Many larger corporations are also subscribing to fair trade and purchasing from fair trade organizations.  You can spot fair trade products by the label on the product, which will typically identify it as a fairly traded product (Figure 1).  You can also find out where to purchase fair trade products by visiting many of the websites noted in the references section as they often identify which retailers and corporations serve fair trade products, most of which are priced comparably to non-fair trade goods.

Figure 1: Examples of Fair Trade Labels (not comprehensive)

So if you wish to make a positive impact in your community and/or globally look into fair trade.  There are several different fair trade products, ranging from food goods to clothing brands, meaning there are multiple different ways one can subscribe to fair trade.  By purchasing fair trade you are assisting in making the world a more fair and equitable place, which ultimately benefits everyone.   

References Cited

Buy Fair.  Be Fair.  http://befair.org/

Equal Exchange.  http://equalexchange.coop

Fair Trade International.  www.fairtrade.net


Ten Thousand Villages.  http://www.tenthousandvillages.com/fair-trade/   

World Fair Trade Organization.  http://wfto.com