Fitting In: A Brief Review of Artificial Cranial Modification

Artificial cranial modification (ACM), also known as artificial cranial deformation, is the manipulation of the cranial vault through the use of externally applied forces in order to change the natural form of the skull.  Two primary types have been identified: intentional and unintentional modification.  Intentional modification is the purposeful act of modifying the cranium, whereas unintentional modification is the accidental reshaping of the skull.  

ACM was practiced by many groups of varying social complexity.  ACM is found among groups on each habitable continent, although the distribution of ACM varied geographically.  ACM practices varied around the world, although the only common element among all the practicing groups is that ACM began shortly after birth, when the skull was most plastic and malleable.  At this time, the cranium was wrapped, bound, and/or affixed to the preferred deformation device, including but not limited to stones, boards, leaves, reeds, textiles, caps, ropes, cradles, and hands.  ACM devices were subsequently removed at variable times, all dependent on cultural preferences.  The total time frame ranged from one year to five years.  There are reports of ACM devices being left on until an individual reached adolescence among some European groups.  The produced ACM styles are believed to have been strictly controlled by the group, although overlap in ACM styles exists across the globe.  

The motivations for practicing ACM varied widely.  A comprehensive review of the motivations was covered in a previous post.  In part due to the nature of ACM styles being a marker of identity and the natural experiment to the body posed by ACM, ACM has been widely studied by scholars for a variety of reasons, principally in understanding the meanings and biological changes attached to ACM.  As new methods are discovered, scholars are gaining a better understanding of the growth changes induced by ACM, as well as the biological consequences related to morbidity and mortality.  Despite over a century’s worth of study, the investigations of ACM continue and lead to additional understandings of this complex and popular practice.

References:

Blackwood B, Danby PM.  1955.  A study of artificial cranial deformation in New Britain.  Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 85: 173-191.

Brain R. 1979.  The Decorated Body.  Hutchinson: London.

 

Dingwall EJ. 1931. Artificial Cranial Deformation: A Contribution to the Study of Ethnic Mutilation.  John Bale and Sons and Danielsson, Ltd.: London.

  
Weiss P.  1961.  Osteología Cultural, Prácticas Cefálicas: 2da Parte, Tipología de alas Deformaciones Cefálicas -- Estudio Cultural de los Tipos Cefálicos y de Algunas Enfermedades Oseas.  Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos: Peru.
 

Happy New Year!

Today is a new day and a new year, and to commemorate this occasion, here is a slide show put together by the folks at NBC News of New Years celebrations around the world:

New Years Celebrations Around the World

I hope everyone's new year was peaceful and satisfying.  May all your goals come to fruition in 2014.

A Blast from the Past: Neanderthal News

As we embark on a new year (2014) let us take a moment to look back at our prehistoric past, specifically at Neanderthals.  Scholars have been expanding the overall pool of knowledge of our human origins, and as a result Neanderthals have been in the news quite a bit this past year, particularly over the past month. Here are some highlights of Neanderthal news stories:

• Definitive Proof of Neanderthal Culture!  The first inkling of evidence of Neanderthals practiced their own unique brand of culture (in the form of burials) was discovered in the early 1900s, but the evidence was highly controversial and many scholars believed it was accidental evidence or faked.  A series of excavations in France, however, have provided substantive evidence that demonstrates that Neanderthals buried their dead, which is evidence of them practicing culture!  Additional evidence also demonstrates that Neanderthals were meticulous about their domestic spaces, organizing their "homes" based on occupational and leisure space(s).  This, too, hints at cultural elements being present among Neanderthals in the past. 
• Neanderthals Got into Ancient Humans' Genes!  The Neanderthal genome has been completely mapped, and from this, there is evidence that Neanderthals and archaic humans interbred.  But this interspecies love was not without consequences: Scientists now believe that modern human diabetes incidences and genetic mutations are linked to Neanderthal DNA.  And if that was not salacious enough for you, this genetic evidence has also demonstrated that Neaderthals relationships were among close family relations, a whole new spin on the kissing cousins phenomenon. 
• Neanderthals Had the Ability to be Chatty Cathys!  New research has demonstrated that Neanderthal skeletal anatomy provided Neanderthals the ability to speak similarly to humans.  Evidence shows Neanderthals had a hyoid bone, which is associated with allowing human beings that ability to speak, although human communication is also associated with genetics and brain size.  Perhaps the research that comes out during 2014 will provide more insights into this area of research since so far the only evidence is anatomical but little has come out in regards to genetic and physiological evidence. 

Holiday Traditions: Yule/Winter Solstice

December is a popular time of year for holidays around the world, and today I want to turn everyone's attentions to one of those holidays: Yule or Winter Solstice. 

Yule, or Winter Solstice, is a holiday practiced by Pagans and Neopagans around the world.  The holiday falls between December 20-23, but it is usually celebrated on the same day as the Winter Solstice (December 21/22).  The holiday is meant to commemorate the rebirth of the Oak King (or similar variant, depending on denomination of Pagan), who is associated with giving life, as well as acknowledge the increase in sun exposure that will occur from that date on.  You may already know that the Winter Solstice is the day when there is the least about of sunlight in the day (or the longest night of the year, depending on your preference). 

There is a long but varied history concerning how this holiday was celebrated in the past, but today, many Pagans & Neopagans celebrate this holiday very similarly to Western (American & Canadian, in particular) Christmas traditions.  Some Pagans/Neopagans have either boughs of holly or a large pine tree that they decorate with traditional colors associated with the season.  Color appropriate candles (gold, silver, green, red, white) are also lit, and sometimes a "Yule log" is burned on the night of the Solstice.  Some individuals will opt to wake prior to sunrise in order to watch the sunrise and say a prayer to the Oak King or sun.  Promises of fulfilling goals or bettering oneself are often times made either at sunrise or sunset.  Presents are usually exchanged in the evening after a large dinner shared with close family and friends. 

http://thestir.cafemom.com/baby/113242/How_to_Celebrate_Yule_With

 
And it is important to note that while there are similarities between Yule and Christmas in how both holidays are celebrated, the purpose behind each is somewhat different: Yule commemorates the rebirth of the Oak King, while Christmas celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ.  Both are times meant to be spent with family and friends, however, meaning they are both special holidays to both groups: Christians and Pagans/Neopagans.

The Legend of Good, Ol'e St. Nic(holas)

St. Nick is a popular nickname for the American/Western version of Santa Claus, but among many European and Middle Eastern culture, St. Nicholas (and his cultural variation) is the protector children who provides good children gifts and bad children switches.  Similar to Santa Claus, St. Nicholas Day is the holiday I grew up with as a child in Germany and remember fondly celebrating the holiday, which in Germany meant leaving my shoes out on the evening of December 7 to wake the next morning to goodies in them. 

Google Image Search: http://acelebrationofwomen.org

A google image search: http://whatmakeschrisclick.blogspot.com

But there are variations on this holiday since it is a holiday that is practiced among so many different cultures.  The holiday is celebrated anywhere between the end of November to the middle of December, something I learned when a Polish friend reminisced about the Polish version occurring on December 6 whereas the German holiday is the following day.  St. Nicholas is popularly depicted as a tall, slender man with a white beard and red coat who walks door to door to patronize children, but cultures with strong ties to Christian faiths associate St. Nicholas as a Saint.  In these depictions, he wears either a red or white robe, carries a staff, and rides a donkey or mule.  I recall during on celebration in southern Germany seeing St. Nicholas depicted in this same manner, much to the disdain of the donkey he rode who had to deal with about a hundred screaming children who were excited to see St. Nicholas in the flesh.

While the holiday is not regularly celebrated in the United States, it remains a popular holiday in Europe and the Middle East, and it remains a cherished holiday memory from my childhood.  However it is that you celebrate the holiday season, many you have a safe and happy holiday season! 

Spotlight on Students: Physical Anthropology

The following is a featured assignment by one of my Anth 102 students, Scott Bower.  

INTRODUCTION

In the below paragraphs I will discuss what defines us as “human”.  I will also provide information on the first species in fossil record that I would define as “human”.  This species is that of Homo habilis, which primarily inhabited southern and eastern Africa around 1.6-2 million years ago.  This species is a successor of Australopithecus and a predecessor to Homo erectus. Homo habilis appears to have broken many of the barriers that separated humans from apes and is the first chronological species in the genius Homo.

WHAT IS “HUMAN” AND WHOM WERE THE FIRST

I believe a variety of characteristics define the human being.  One of the most obvious is the human locomotion pattern of true erect bipedalism.  The first example of true bipedalism in the Homo fossil record is that of Homo habilis, which was discovered in 1960 at Olduvai Gorge by Jonathan Leaky.  The “Olduvai foot” was reconstructed in 1960 and demonstrated a stout basal bone of the big toe aligned with the other toes.[i]  This is in contrast to the large and divergent big toes of monkeys and apes and demonstrates strong evidence of true bipedalism.

            Another characteristic that defines us as humans is the ability to make tools and the use of vocalized language for communications between each other.  H. habilis, which literally means “handy man”, has been associated with 11 different kind of tools that are known as the “Olduvan industry”[ii]. These abilities are correlated, largely, with an enlarged braincase.  The braincase of H. habilis is, although small in comparison to modern-day humans, at around 674CC[iii] (Homo sapiens 1600CC), may have been large enough to provide the degree of intelligence required to manufacture crude stone tools and speak a basic form of language.  This is a monumental leap in evolutionary biology where primates evolved away from ape-like features into a more human form.

            A further important characteristic of humans is the formation of complex social structures.  The fact that H. habilis is associated with tool making in conjunction with an enlarged braincase, aiding in the possibility of H. habilis obtaining the ability to speak; the probability of some type of complex social structure is great.  The only reason why H. habilis  maintained the ability to construct a more complex assortment of tools would be to aid in a hunter gatherer society.  This formation of a “society” is key in understanding the evolution and origin of Homo sapiens.

            Also unique to H. habilis was their ability to construct and live in shelters, which also aided in the ability to form complex sociocultural structures.  In 1966, Henry de Lumley discovered a camp that was inhabited by H. habilis.  This camp located in Terra Amata, France contained evidence of large huts constructed of animal skins.  Also discovered at the site was further evidence of advanced stone tools and the ability of H. habilis to use fire.  This discovery was the first evidence of a primate being able to construct and live in artificial dwellings and is a monumental step in human evolution.  

            CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Homo habilis appears to be the first species in the fossil record that had the ability to form many of the fundamental characteristics that define “human”.  Although, Homo habilis had many divergent qualities in comparison to that of Homo sapiens, they were the first to develop the basic foundations of what makes us human.  In my opinion, Homo habilis is the first species in the fossil record that can be considered “archaic human”.  I believe they had too many human like qualities, running in conjunction, to not be considered the first true primitive form of human.

REFERENCES

[1] Graham Brown, Stephanie Fairfax, Nidhi Sarao, and S. Anonymous (2013). Human Evolution. Retrieved from http://tolweb.org/treehouses/?treehouse_id=3710

[1] Graham Brown, Stephanie Fairfax, Nidhi Sarao, and S. Anonymous (2013). Human Evolution. Retrieved from http://tolweb.org/treehouses/?treehouse_id=3710

[1] Philip L. Stein & Bruce M. Rowe (2014). Physical Anthropology 11^th Ed: Early Species of the Genus Homo. Pg. 325. Fig. 14.2