Upholding Pre-Colonial Culture: The Muxe of the Zapotecs

Figure 1: Muxe posing for a piece in Vogue Mexico in 2019 (Source: Vogue Mexico)

 

It is promoted by various scholars that many Indigenous groups, both in the past and present day, do not abhor, hide, or shame third gendered individuals.  They are accepted as part of the social fabric of the cultural group, and in some cases they are celebrated for their third gender identity (e.g., Hijra). European colonization changed those views among various indigenous groups, making it taboo to be anything but a man or a woman as defined by European (and modern day Western) perspectives.  It is important to know, recognize, and understand that individuals who are third gender are living within the frameworks and expectations of their society and culture.  It is not abnormal to be third gender because the concept and identity is normalized and accepted, which leads to the discussion of the Muxe (pronounced moo-shay) of the Zapotecs.

 

The Muxe are the third gender category of the Zapotec, an Indigenous group of Oaxaca, Mexico.  The Muxe are found in abundance in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec of the Oaxaca state, where they live relatively safe and accepted lives.  While the Muxe are recognized as a third gender they also represent the preservation of traditional culture that survived and continues to thrive despite intentional suppression.  It is well documented that Pre-Columbian Central American populations acknowledged and accepted third gendered individuals.  This is demonstrated among priests who wore men’s and women’s clothing and depictions of gods who had no specific sex assigned them or who had both sexes assigned to them, thereby occupying a space where they were neither male nor female.  The Muxe existed prior to Spanish domination and colonization of the Zapotecs, and despite violent suppression by the Spanish the Zapotecs managed to maintain the Muxe and various other aspects of their pre-colonial lives and traditions.  The existence and acceptance of the Muxe is a testament to the preservation of Zapotec culture.

 

The Zapotecs do not consider the Muxe to be either male or female; they are their own separate gender.  This is very much like the conceptions of the gods who were neither male nor female.  From a Western perspective the Muxe would be considered transgender women.  They are men who adopt women’s mannerisms and dress, occupying specific roles that are considered feminine but simultaneously distinctly Muxe.  Muxe are very proud of their identities, but it not an identity that one can become easily or lightly.  Becoming Muxe is a lifelong process.  It starts with recognition, often at a young age by a parent who sees their male child acting more feminine or having an affinity toward feminine behaviors, roles, and values.  Upon identification the candidate must then acceptance by the Muxe and non-Muxe communities, followed by the learning and reinforcement of the Muxe identity throughout their lifetime.

 

The Muxe occupy specific social and economic roles within the society.  They embody the ideals of femininity within Zapotec society, which is displayed through the attire they wear and occupations they have.  They are largely responsible for creating and wearing the traditional floral embroidered clothing known as the Tehuana traje.  This style of dress was popularized by Frida Kahlo, who depicted it in her paintings and adopted it as her preferred attire.  The Muxe create their own Tehuana traje clothing that they wear, as well as that which is sold in the marketplace, be it for locals who want to celebrate important events (e.g., baptisms or quinceañeras) or as exports.  Muxe also work as nurses, educator, and event planners.  Because the Muxe are viewed as hardworking their labor is very much appreciated by the local community.  Additionally, because the Muxe are culturally discouraged from entering relationships they do not marry and live with their parents throughout their lives.  This means they are responsible for the care of their aging parents, which earns them greater respect.

 

In Isthmus of Tehuantepec the Muxe are honored with an annual festival called Las Auténticas e Intrepidas Buscadoras del Peligro (in English this translates to the Vigil (vela) of the Authentic Intrepid Searchers of Danger.  This is a three-day festival is held every November in the city of Juchitán, Oaxaca.  There are parades, street dancing and performances, as well as a pageant wherein the Muxe display gowns they made for themselves as part of the festivities.

 

While the Muxe are valued they are not safe from discrimination or violence.  Because their existence is in direct opposition to dominate gender norms within the rest of Mexican society there are those who discriminate against them or commit various types of crimes against them, from assaults to murders.  Allies of the Muxe are also victimized, most often being murdered for their acceptance and support of the Muxe (be it individual Muxe or the Muxe community generally).

 

Many Muxe are fighting for greater visibility and acceptance outside of their small region in Oaxaca, as well as for greater freedoms and privileges (e.g., the right to be in relationships).  Their fight is also indirectly helping the cause of LGBTQ+ populations outside of their area, too.  Thus far they are at least receiving wider recognition as several Muxe were featured in Mexican Vogue in 2019 (Figure 1), but their fight is far from over.  Hopefully soon they will achieve their goals and be able to live freely and safely throughout Mexico.

 

Works Cited

Chisholm, Jennifer. "Muxe, Two-Spirits, and the myth of Indigenous transgender acceptance." International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies (2018): 22-35. Print.

Natural History Museum Los Angeles County. "Beyond Gender: Indigenous Perspectives, Muxe." 15 September 2020. Natural History Museum Los Angeles County. Electronic. 10 May 2024.

Ramirez, Jacob and Ana María Munar. "Hybrid gender colonization: The case of muxes." Gender, Work, & Organization (2022): 1868-1889. Print.

 

Applied Anthropologist Profile: Dr. Chelsea Blackmore, Senior Archaeologist at Albion Environmental Inc. & Queer Theorist

Dr. Chelsea Blackmore (Source: Archaeological Institute of America, as provided by Blackmore)

Today’s blog post will discuss the significant work of Dr. Chelsea Blackmore, Senior Archaeologist at Albion Environmental Inc.  She also has been an outspoken advocate of queer theory in archaeological theory and practice.  In this post you will learn how it is that she came to be such an advocate and what her work has done to make archaeology a more equitable place and space for both past and present people.

 

Dr. Chelsea Blackmore came out as queer when she was 29 years old.  Because she came out at that age, when she was a graduate student transitioning into the professional realm of the academy, she had concerns related to herself but also in her own research and professional settings she was and would be occupying.  Realizing that there were too few resources for queer archaeological scholars and almost no discussion of queer theory or identities in research she embarked on her journey to change both. It became her mission to ensure that upcoming scholars had resources, and that queer theory and identities were understood, legitimized, and studied within archaeological contexts.

 

She quickly began talking with her peers and professors about the issues she was seeing, both within archaeological study and as a queer archaeologist.  She realized and recognized that in archaeological theory the ideas of gender and sexuality are very rarely interrogated.  As a graduate student she noted that it was (and still is to this day among many scholars) automatically assumed that when looking at gender and sexuality that cisgender and heterosexuality are the norms, intentionally or unintentionally ignoring the possibilities and evidence of third genders and the spectrum of sexual identities.  Some of the lack of discussion on these topics was due to fear of retribution for considering these ideas, while others just simply did not consider these possibilities.  Ultimately, by not considering these options among past people contemporary archaeologists were and are limiting their understanding of the past.  Also, by defaulting to the modern-day standards of what is considered normal minorities living in the present are further obscured and pushed back into the closet because they are forced to feel valueless.

 

She also opened discussion about how queer anthropologists and archaeologist are treated, and how that treatment affects their ability to be successful within the discipline.  This includes but is not limited to access to field sites (based on laws of the country or the perceptions of the field supervisors), treatment while out in the field, ability to collaborate in research and/or publish, etc.  By engaging in these discussions she has made it easier for up and coming queer archaeologists to feel safer in the field and to have the challenges that they currently and will face acknowledged and addressed in appropriate ways. 

 

Blackmore took this and other social justice approaches to the classroom, actively integrating them into her teaching practices.  She was credited by her students and her peers for creating and fostering an open and safe learning environment for all students while she was an Assistant Professor at the University of California-Santa Cruz.  She ultimately left that position in 2019 to pursue a career as the Senior Archaeologist at Albion Environmental Inc.  This is a female owned cultural resources management firm based out of California.  Even though she has left the academy her work and efforts remain instrumental in changing the dialogues within archaeological study and practice, creating opportunities to better understand the past and provide greater access to all archaeologists today.

 

Bibliography

Archaeological Institute of America. "Archaeologists You Should Know: Chelsea Blackmore." 2023. Archaeological Institute of America. Electronic. 10 May 2024.

Blackmore, Chelsea. "Editorial." 31 January 2018. Queer Archaeology. Electronic. 10 May 2024.

Blackmore, Chelsea, et al. "Queering Fieldwork: Difference and Identity in Archaeological Practice." 2016. Society for American Archaeology. Print. 10 May 2024.

Moodie, Megan. "Heartfelt Thanks to Chelsea Blackmore." 11 June 2019. University of California-Santa Cruz Anthropology. Electronic. 10 May 2024.

 

Inclusive LGBTQ+ Language

Assuming everyone is heterosexual or cisgender erases the diversity of sexual and gender identities that exist around the world.  These assumptions reaffirm often false and negative stereotypes about members of the LGBTQ+ identity groups, limiting who they are and how they are perceived.  Various individuals are working to become more aware and inclusive of the various sexual and gender identities that have and continue to exist in our contemporary world.  There remain various outdated terms that continue to be used that are disrespectful if not outright offensive, leading to changes in the everyday language used to describe and reference these individuals.  Today’s blog post seeks to encourage the use of inclusive language by focusing on LGBTQ+ appropriate terms and phrases.  Be aware that there are additional terms that are inclusive of other identities (e.g., race, religion, ability, age, socioeconomic status, etc.) that exist, but they will not be directly addressed in this post.

 

First, however, it is important to recognize and acknowledge the motivations and reasons for why someone would want to adopt more inclusive language, particularly as it relates to LGBTQ+ individuals.  Gender and sexual identity neutral language can help protect LGBTQ+ populations from harm, be it emotional, psychological, or physical harm.  Not everyone is tolerant or accepting of these individuals, so neutral language can protect their identities in a respectful way.  It is also important to normalize the use of gender and sexual identity neutral language.  This makes it less taboo and not an immediate indicator of someone from these identity groups, particularly if they wish to have their personal information remain private and protected.  Therefore, volunteering information, such as one’s personal pronouns, helps normalize these terms and phrases.

 

It is important to acknowledge that everyone makes mistakes, and it is a perpetual learning process to learn, understand, and adopt more inclusive language.  Those who revert to old, outdated, disrespectful, and/or offensive terms may not be doing so out of malintent.  They also may not be doing so intentionally.  Learning and using inclusive language is a conscious and willful process, and it can happen that one forgets or unintentionally misspeaks.  It could also be that they were unaware that the term they were using was disrespectful or offensive, so a polite reminder or brief instruction may be necessary and useful.

 

With this information in mind here is a list of outdated terms that promote the gender binary and erase gender identity diversity that one should be aware of and begin to phase out if they wish to be more inclusive with their language choices:

o   Ladies and gentlemen

o   Men and women of (insert group)

o   Boys and girls

o   Brothers and sisters

o   He or she

o   S/he

o   Sir or Madam

Instead the following terms should be adopted and used as they are gender neutral:

o   Esteemed guests

o   Friends and colleagues

o   The individual/person

o   Students

o   Siblings

o   Everyone

o   The participant(s)

o   (Employee title) of all genders or simply (gender neutral employee title, e.g., the Faculty)

 

There is also a list of outdated terms that are harmful and/or offensive to transgendered individuals.  Outdated terms include transvestite or transsexual wherein transgender should be used instead.  Instead of saying sex reassignment or change when addressing medical procedures a trans individual may opt to undergo say gender affirmation, transition care, or change of gender marker.  If the individual you are referencing does drag or wears clothing of a different gender then you can refer to them as a drag queen/king or dressing in drag if they are amendable to either, or if it is unknown what their preference is then simply say they are a cross dresser.

 

Individuals who are not transgendered are often referred to as cisgendered.  This is not an offensive or a pejorative term despite what some claim.  It simply means that the person identifies as the gender associated with the sex assigned to them at birth.  If someone does not want to be referred to as cisgendered, as is their right, you can simply say that they are not transgendered or a non-transgender individual/man/woman.

 

Within the LGBTQ+ identity groups are a category known as intersexed, which often denotes individuals born with reproductive or sexual anatomy of both sexes.  The outdated term often used to describe or label these individuals is hermaphrodite, which is derived from Greek mythology, but the preferred and contemporary term is intersexed.

 

If the topic of sexual orientation comes up it is passe to say that someone has a sexual preference or lifestyle.  It is more appropriate to say that it is their sexual identity or orientation.  The former suggests there is a choice in who one is attracted to or has intimate relationships with (which then the individual can choose not to be gay), whereas the latter recognizes there is no choice in attraction or intimate relationships.

 

Again, the choice to use more inclusive language is a personal one, but by opting to use more inclusive language you are acknowledging and respecting the existence of various types and groups of people.  This list is by no means an exhaustive list of all the different types of inclusive language options that exist, nor is it a complete list of the LGBTQ+ options available (e.g., referencing partner or spouse instead of boyfriend/girlfriend or husband/wife).  An additional resource that you may wisht to review is this post about the singular they, which is one personal (not gendered) pronoun option.

 

Works Cited

LGBTQ+ Equity Center. "Good Practices: Inclusive Language ." 2024. University of Maryland Office of Diversity & Inclusion. Electronic. 9 May 2024.

LGBTQIA Resource Center. "Pronouns and Inclusive Language." 18 March 2024. UC Davis LGBTQIA Resource Center. Electronic. 9 May 2024.

State Government of Victoria. "Top Five Principles." 27 October 2023. LGBTIQA+ inclusive language guide. Electronic. 9 May 2024.