Applying Anthropology: Medical Anthropology

One of the more recent exercises that I have asked my students to complete is to explore the options for applying anthropological method and theory into practice, specifically for themselves and within their proposed career fields.  This is often met with a series of moans and groans typical of any new undertaking by students, but the purpose of these exercises is to encourage students to engage with the anthropological material, which they believe to be insignificant, in new and creative ways.  As anthropology is broadly a field concerned with answering the question of what it means to be human finding ways that anthropology affects any discipline is actually not that difficult, and upon completion of the exercise many students realize that what they are learning is both valuable and useful.  In this vein of thinking today’s blog post is dedicated to one anthropological sub-subfield (as I like to call them) that has theoretical implications and real-world applications: medical anthropology.  This blog post will explore what medical anthropology is, how it can be used in applied settings, and some areas of already being undertaken as well as avenues of further inquiry.

Medical anthropology is the study of how individuals and societies define, identify, and treat illnesses, as well as describe states of healthiness.  You, the reader, probably take these notions for granted and are probably thinking to yourself that you (and those around you) understand health and sickness similarly, but the reality is that this is not the case.  Cultural groups around the world identify illness and the causes of those illnesses quite differently.  For example, the Azande of northern Africa attribute illness to being cursed by witches, while the Hmong (originally of southwest Asia, although many now live in the US) identify sickness as the result of an imbalance between the physical world we exist in and the spiritual world that exists around us.  These cultural groups may be vastly different from your own, but if you think within your own cultural group have you encountered people who appear healthy but are actually sick?  Or people who are sick but say that they are not?  This is because in our culture, as well as many cultures around the globe, there are series of factors that affect definitions of illness and health, and these factors are typically based in cultural, economic, political, and religious circumstances.  For example, when I was growing up it (in American culture) it was taboo to admit you had a mental illness.  Today, there are less taboos about mental illnesses in the US, but in other cultures mental illnesses remain unrecognized and therefore people within those cultures do not acknowledge the existence of mental illnesses or seek treatment for them.  Another example explains why a man I knew never reported his pain when he was dying of cancer.  He never reported it because he was a man (and in American culture, men “don’t feel pain”) and grew up in poverty, and therefore despite having health insurance and the means to see a doctor as an adult he felt that he could not afford to take time off work to see a doctor or seek treatment.  Therefore, he opted to ignore the pain and ultimately died because he never believed he was sick.  These are all aspects of health and wellness that medical anthropologists study.

As you might be beginning to realize there are many applications for medical anthropological research.  Medical anthropologists can be employed in a variety of fields given the scopes of their research and lines of inquiry.  Many hospitals have opted to hire medical anthropologists to work with patients in understanding their illnesses and how to seek treatment.  Social workers can utilize medical anthropological knowledge to understand how identity (e.g. gender, age, socioeconomic status, religion, etc.) affect their clients’ ability and/or willingness to seek and acquire help.  Nurses and doctors use medical anthropological knowledge daily in diagnosing and treating patients (even if they do not realize it, although many nursing and medical programs are actually incorporating medical anthropological coursework into the curriculum).  Psychologists also use medical anthropological knowledge to discern meaning from the words patients use or do not use when describing how they are feeling so as to better assist them with treatment.  Medical anthropologists are also used quite regularly to inform public policies at the government levels as their research can be used to promote or inhibit the creation or reformation of laws that are either medically related or have little to do with medicine.

This is the case of the research done by Angela Garcia, whose longitudinal studies among impoverished families in the US & Mexico seeks to understand the political, economic, and psychological decisions that go into identifying whether or not an individual is sick.  Her research has been used to encourage reforms to drug laws, particularly regarding their effects on impoverished populations (such as those she studies).  Another medical anthropologist, Lochlann Jain, researches how stories about injuries are told and retold, and how that affects the medico-legal community and patients.  As these reports of injuries affect doctor’s decisions in treating patients, insurance companies’ decision in covering claims, innovations in new medical practices and treatment options, and ultimately the patients Jain’s research is crucial in assisting people, particularly the injured, in getting better.  But not all medical anthropologists conduct research with such far reaching effects.  Many actually work within professional or governmental organizations, such as Ria and Theron Hunthammer.  Their work in the private and governmental sectors of public health have actually initiated changes within their communities that have benefited people directly.

Ultimately, the field of anthropology is a dynamic one that has a great deal of utility across various areas, and medical anthropology is one that demonstrates that as it touches people directly and indirectly through reforming political actions and changing the way doctors and nurses treat patients.  This area of anthropology is also a viable one for individuals interested in pursuing a medical career without pursuing traditional routes, such as nursing or medicine, which may be inaccessible for various reasons.  In conclusion the next time you or someone you know thinks or says that anthropology is worthless remember this and tell them how wrong they actually are.  :)

References

Department of Anthropology. (2019). Medical Anthropology. Retrieved from Northwestern University: https://www.anthropology.northwestern.edu/undergraduate/career-paths/medical.html

Littlewood, R. (2019). Medical Anthropology. Retrieved from Discover Anthropology: https://www.discoveranthropology.org.uk/about-anthropology/specialist-areas/medical-anthropology.html

No Author. (2017). What is Medical Anthropology? Retrieved from Society for Medical Anthropology: http://www.medanthro.net/about/about-medical-anthropology/

No Author. (No Date). Medical Anthropology . Retrieved from Standford Department of Anthropology: https://anthropology.stanford.edu/research-projects/medical-anthropology

Introducing Homo luzonensis, A Newly Discovered Hominid Ancestor?

Figure 1: Teeth of the Homo luzonensis species.

In April of this year the biological/physical anthropology community was abuzz with big news coming out of the Philippines.  This news took the form of seven teeth, a couple of finger and toe bones, and a fragmentary leg bone, all of which a team led by Florent Détroit, a paleoanthropologist at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, claim is evidence of a new species of hominid.  They dubbed the discovery Homo luzonensis, naming the species after its island of discovery.  While this discovery is not without some controversy (which will be discussed) it does provide new evidence that seeks to foster new avenues of research into who and what makes us human.

The scant remains of Homo luzonensis cannot provide us a lot of information, but what they do demonstrates that this species retained several primitive and primate-like features, such as the ability to live in and climb trees (based on the curvature of the finger and toe bones) and multi-rooted teeth (Figure 1).  While an exact height is unable to be determined at present it is hypothesized that they were smaller, much like their neighbor species, Homo floresiensis (referred to as the “Hobbits”).  Lead researcher Florent Détroit believes that Homo luzonensis was a descendant population from earlier Homo erectus that may have populated the island.

And this is where the controversy about this species is partially rooted.  It was previously believe that Homo erectus species, who did leave Africa and populated the Asian continent, were unable to populate the South Pacific Islands because they lacked the ability and intellectual capacity to create boats.  These islands were inaccessible by land bridge, so many scholars believed that the islands would therefore have no evidence of hominid occupations.  Of course, the discovery of Homo floresiensis changed that, which led Détroit and his team to investigate the island of Luzon further.  Now it appears that Homo erectus species did arrive on the island, either through swimming or rafting.

This also sets the date for when Homo erectus left Africa to much earlier than originally believed.  The Homo luzonensis specimens date to approximately 50,000 years ago, but Détroit and his team hypothesize that the hominid occupation of the island may have occurred as early as 700,000 years ago.  (SAY WHAT?!)  They make these claims based on evidence of a butchered rhinoceros which dates to this time.  If this claim is correct then a reanalysis of the peopling of the Old World would need to be done, further shaking up the debate about human origins.

There are some scholars, however, who remain unconvinced that the remains found on Luzon warrant another species classification.  They state that given the recent discovery of human-Neanderthal hybrids and other species hybrids that these remains could be indicative of such a hybrid of yet to be discovered hominid species (or already discovered but not quite classified).  This debate would be settled through DNA testing, but as of yet no DNA has been successfully extracted from the Luzon fossils.  Until such time this species will only temporarily be considered that: a new species.  Regardless this discovery provides new and greater insights into our human origins and what exactly it means to be human.

Works Cited

Bower, B. (2019, April 10). A new hominid species has been found in a Philippine cave, fossils suggest. Science News.

Fleming, N. (2019, April 10). Unknown human relative discovered in Philippine cave. Nature.

Greshko, M., & Wei-Haas, M. (2019, April 10). New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines. National Geographic.

Applied Anthropology: What Archaeology Does for Solving Today’s Problems

One of the common misconceptions about anthropology is that it is a solely academic pursuit and that the only jobs anthropologists can get are in academia.  This is quite incorrect because while anthropology is often recognized as having four subfields there is actually an unofficial fifth: applied anthropology.  This is an area of anthropology that focuses on using anthropological method and theory to solve real world problems, and today’s blog post is dedicated to understanding how archaeology can be applied in such a way.  This will be accomplished by examining three unique ways archaeologists are using their archaeological knowledge to assist with modern issues. 

Producing Inexpensive Alternatives to Modern Necessities

Figure 1: Egyptian blue pigment was widely used in ancient Egypt for utilitarian purposes (Picture Credit: Ancient Origins)

Approximately 4600 years ago Ancient Egyptians created the world’s first artificial pigment.  This pigment is called “Egyptian blue” (Figure 1), and it is created by melting sand (with quartz), copper, and natron together.  The color produced through this method mimics that created by lapis lazuli, which is a far more expensive option.  While “Egyptian blue” was popular in the past and used for a variety of utilitarian purposes it eventually fell out of favor and the color and its recipe for creation was almost lost to the ages.  That was until archaeochemists began to study the formula of this once popular color to discover its properties and how it could be created today.  The reason for this investigation is to identify a cheaper but effective means of creating this same dye and using it as a replacement for more expensive dyes used in medical imaging, security inks, and dusty powder for fingerprint detection and analysis.  Ultimately, the scientific value of this archaeological inquiry will save money and the environment as lapis lazuli is a mined mineral, and mining has several environmental and health consequences associated with it.

The Archaeology of Climate Change

A popular area of research within the field of archaeology is climate change.  A total of about 150 years worth of climate change data exists due to archaeological inquiry into this topic, yielding information that can and is used to identify how much human manipulation of the natural world can and does lead to societal and environmental collapse.  Within this research, archaeologists study how past environmental disasters, such as large-scale fires, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and more, affect societies and instigate necessary social changes.  The biggest social changes involve changing subsistence strategies from those no longer viable and/or environmentally harmful to those that enable human populations to not only continue but to thrive.  These studies also assist in identifying the best way to recover information from areas affected by mass disasters today, which can be useful in discovering the source of the issues that led to the widespread loss of property and/or human life as well as identifying who is going to be the most affected when such events occur.

In addition to these types of studies archaeologists are also turning to archaeological inquiry to understand not only the changing landscape but the history of indigenous plants and animals to a given region.  This takes the form of research to determine the historical patterns of the local environment, which can be used to help modern conservationists with endangered species.  Local Missouri research was completed to determine if a specific population of endangered fox was indigenous or invasive.  The goal of this line of inquiry was in part to determine whether the fox was always part of the Missouri environment, and if so this could be used to determine what specific factors are affecting its existence in the region today.

Brewing Up Ancient Ales

 

Figure 2: Midas Touch beer (Picture credit: C. Boston)

While not lifesaving but still quite remarkable archaeologists have gotten in the beer brewing business by sharing ancient brewing knowledge and beer recipes with modern day breweries.  The trend began with a collaboration between Dogfish Head Brewery and a University of Pennsylvania archaeologist, who uses paleobotanical evidence and archaeochemistry to test residues in ancient pottery that once held beer to determine what ingredients were used in antiquity.  Many of the ancient recipes are actually written down and therefore able to be read by archaeologists who are able to translate the ancient script.  A series of ancient ales have been created as a result of this collaboration, including the Midas Touch (Figure 2), a brew believed to have been served at an ancient Mesopotamian ruler’s funeral, and Chateau Jiahu, a Neolithic brew from China (also from burial contexts). 

This archaeological line of inquiry is not just being utilized by the Dogfish Head Brewery, however.  Several other breweries have either announced similar collaborative efforts or are rumored to be doing so.  There is also a university in Germany that is taking these methods and using them to teach future beer brewers so they can capitalize on the knowledge of the past and create “new”, innovative beers.

 

  

Works Cited

Fawcett, Kirstin. Scientists Are Using an Ancient Egyptian Pigment to Create New Technologies. 8 January 2018. http://mentalfloss.com/article/523998/scientists-are-using-ancient-egyptian-pigment-create-new-technologies?utm_content=buffer01e9d&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_campaign=buffer&fbclid=IwAR2NQzGrIKqJa3ajqWUE_RBdEyZRcPrW5C8fb8TzTz8p3Wvj0vED. 22 April 2019.

Gibb, Heather.  Personal communication.

Horn, Brad. Aged 9000 Years Ancient Beer Finally Hits Stores. 17 July 2010. https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128587208. 22 April 2019.

Kiderra, Inga. Archaeology offers insights into climate change strategies. 31 October 2018. https://news.wsu.edu/2018/10/31/history-offers-insights-into-climate-change-strategies/. 22 April 2019.

Roddick, Andrew. Using archaeology to understand the past, present, future of climate change. 17 December 2018. https://phys.org/news/2018-12-archaeology-future-climate.html. 22 April 2019.

Tucker, Abigail. The Beer Archaeologist. August 2011. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-beer-archaeologist-17016372/. 22 April 2019.