Unraveling the Mystery of the Quipu: The “Writing” System of the Ancient Andes

Figure 1: Quipu (American Museum of Natural History)

When you think about writing you probably think of composing a series of words onto a medium such as a piece of paper or into your computer or phone.  The words you write are made up of a series of letters that are used to spell out specific words that can be read by anyone who understands the language of the text.  This idea comes to mind because that is how you (and most of us) learn to communicate through writing, but not all cultures learned how to write using the same alphabet we used.  Linguistic anthropologists recognize that a series of alphabets can and are often used to communicate specific languages, and you may be familiar with this concept if you have ever learned Spanish, German, or Chinese.  Each of these languages have their own letters or scripts used to communicate their language through text. 

What you may not be familiar with are the languages that do not utilize traditional alphabets that many modern language systems do.  One such writing system is known as the quipu (khipu), which is a series of knotted ropes meant to communicate numbers and ideas.  Today’s blog post will explore what the quipu was, who used it, its importance, as well as it discontinued use.

The quipu is a system of recording through a series of knotted ropes (Figure 1).  Believed to have been developed as early as 900 AD the quipus are popularly associated with the ancient Inca of Peru, although the quipu was definitely utilized by the Huari and potentially other Pre-Columbian Andean cultural groups.  Unfortunately, around 750 quipus exist today, having been destroyed by the Spanish Conquistadors, so are knowledge about them is limited to what little ethnohistoric information remains and what archaeologists are interpreting from the existing quipus.

The quipus were created primarily using cotton or camelid wool ropes, although there are a few ropes created from human or Taruca (Andean deer) hair or vegetable fibers.  The quipus themselves consisted of a long stick or rope that acted as the top or mounting of additional knotted ropes that conveyed the messages.  Each knotted rope consisted of a primary or main cord to which several pendent cords branched off.  Pendent cords held subsidiary cords.  Each level of the quipu was used to convey specific numeric information, enabling the reader (known as a quipucamayoc) to quickly interpret census numbers or other information concerning amounts of items, dates, or other numeric data.  The ropes were also displayed in various colors, which ethnohistoric information and archaeological interpretation supports notions of narrative information being recorded through the quipu.  Thus far scholars believe that each color represented a different group or class of people, from warriors and nobility to living versus the dead.  As the information conveyed in the quipu may have been limited the quipucamayoc were responsible for having excellent memories in order to remember and interpret the information stored within the quipus.

Because of the vast amount of information contained in the quipus they were an incredibly important recording devices among ancient Andean cultural groups.  In lieu of a written, alphabetic system the quipu allowed for communication within the Incan empire, which stretched from southern Ecuador to northern Chile.  The quipu traveled great distances throughout the empire, and their rope construction may have been optimal for travel by human messenger.  Furthermore, their rope construction also allowed them to be better able to survive over time, thereby allowing for the oral traditions housed within them to be preserved over the generations.

Unfortunately, the quipu tradition was forcibly discontinued by the Spanish Conquistadors, who associated the practice with the Inca faith.  As part of the charge of the Conquistadors by the Spanish crown was to spread and convert the conquered to Catholicism all elements of “pagan” faiths were destroyed, which included the quipu.  As a result the ability to read the quipu was lost, as was the knowledge used for their creation and the information stored within them.  Fortunately, archaeologists and other historical scholars are working diligently to unlock the information stored within the remaining quipus, which is providing us a greater knowledge base on what life was like in the ancient Andean worlds.

Bibliography

Cartwright, M. (2014, May 8). Quipu. Retrieved from Ancient History Encyclopedia: https://www.ancient.eu/Quipu/

Dixon, C. (n.d.). HUARI culture . Retrieved from Gold and the Incas: Lost Worlds of Peru: https://nga.gov.au/exhibition/Incas/Default.cfm?IRN=227101&BioArtistIRN=41379&MnuID=3&GalID=7&ViewID=2

Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino. (2003). Narrative Quipus? Retrieved from Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino: http://www.precolombino.cl/en/exposiciones/exposiciones-temporales/exposicion-quipu-contar-anudando-en-el-imperio-inka-2003/quipus-y-cuentos/

Phillips, T. (2014, May 5). The Knots in the Quipu, and in the Friar's Belt. Retrieved from American Mathematical Society: http://www.ams.org/publicoutreach/feature-column/fc-2014-05

Swetz, F. J. (2010). The Quipu. Retrieved from Mathematical Association of America: https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/the-quipu

  

Written in Stone: A Review of Roman Graffiti

Figure 1: Roman Graffiti (Source: Tony Lilley)

 

Graffiti is a term used to describe writings or drawings, often created without permission, left in public view.  Today in American (and many Western) society(ies), there is a love/hate relationship with graffiti.  Some are fans, claiming it is an important means of self-expression, whereas others identify it as a blight and a form of vandalism.  Chances are you have seen some sort of graffiti (if not been a creator of it)-be it on train cars, bathroom walls, tags on playgrounds or fire hydrants, or any number of other locations.  Graffiti may be controversial, but it is an excellent source of information about the people and culture of the area where it is found.  This makes it of particular interests to anthropologists of all kinds, particularly archaeologists who want to gain insights into groups of people that historians often neglect to mention.  This blog post will further explore the ancient graffiti of ancient Romans and address what sorts of information we can glean from the study of graffiti.

The ancient graffiti found throughout several Roman cities, particularly Pompeii and Herculaneum, has provided great insights into the popular culture and common Roman people (Figure 1).  These cities, which were locked in time due to a volcanic eruption that decimated the cities and their inhabitants over a period of three days, hold a treasure trove of information related to what ancient Roman life was like.  Because the volcanic ash covered the cities so quickly it also provided optimal preservation to allow for easy study of what remains.  This is perfect for studies of ancient Roman graffiti, which exists in several Roman sites but may no longer be accessible due to natural and man-made degradation of sites.

From studies of ancient graffiti at Pompeii and Herculaneum archaeologists have learned that people were far more literate than what was originally believed.  Graffiti was created by every member of Roman society, which included men, women, slaves, free citizens, rich, and poor, particularly as it was an accepted means of writing (versus today).  Many graffiti writers signed their names and provided additional identifying remarks (e.g. “I am a slave”), thereby allowing scholars to get this information.  As the graffiti was created by all members of the Roman society greater insights into the daily lives of the common people is able to be collected.  

Figure 2: Graffiti of a Bird (Source: Carole Raddato)

While there is a great diversity in the types of messages left in ancient Roman graffiti there are several central themes.  First, the large majority of the graffiti is written messages, although there are quite a few pictures as well.  The pictures largely include people, particularly gladiators, and items, such as animals and boats (Figure 2), that were commonly used or seen by the local people.  One particular image that was common place was the penis.  Several of the penis images were meant to be vulgar, but the majority of them were actually meant to promote good luck either to the individuals or locations where the images were produced.

Written graffiti messages also had specific themes.  As is the case today, one of the most common messages was “(name) was here”.  Ancient Romans wanted to memorialize their presence in specific important locations.  Other messages included messages of good tidings (e.g. “Pompeii is a wonderful place to visit”), declarations of love, announcements of hate, as well as messages against improper actions, particularly related to people defecating in public places.  The messages of love are quite interesting as they describe both heterosexual and homosexual relationships (the latter being a little more popular than the former), as well as display situations of unrequited love, such as the case of a man declaring his love for a slave girl who did not share these same feelings.

Overall, the graffiti found in ancient Roman contexts provides us a great deal of insights into the lives of the common people in Roman, thereby increasing our knowledge and understanding of this once great culture.  Through the study of the graffiti we can see that the ancient Romans were not that different from modern people.  They felt love, loss, and offense to negligence just as we do today.  They were fascinated by the sights they saw, as well as felt a desire to memorialize their presence.  As the saying goes, The more things change the more they stay the same, and the evidence of ancient Roman graffiti definitely supports that.   

Bibliography

Benefiel, R. R. (2018). The Ancient Graffiti Project: A Digital Resource for Studying the Graffiti of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Retrieved from Ancient Graffiti.org: http://ancientgraffiti.org/Graffiti/

Edwards, C. (2017, July 20). ‘Graffiti in Pompeii and Herculaneum give insight into groups marginalized by history books’. Retrieved from The Local: https://www.thelocal.it/20170720/pompeii-herculaneum-graffiti-history-archaeology-marginalized-groups-ancient-rome-slaves-women-vesuvius-social-media

Harvey, B. (2018, December 30). Graffiti from Pompei. Retrieved from Pompeiana.org: http://www.pompeiana.org/Resources/Ancient/Graffiti%20from%20Pompeii.htm

Ohlson, K. (2010, July 26). Reading the Writing on Pompeii’s Walls. Smithsonian Magazine.

Taylor, E. (2016). Ostia Graffiti. Retrieved from Ostia-Antica.org: http://ostia-antica.org/inter/graffiti.html

Williams, A. (2013, January 31). What Does First-century Roman Graffiti Say? National Geographic Magazine.

Kanamara Matsuri: The Festival of the Steel Penis

Figure 1: The Kanamara Fune Mikoshi (Source: No Author, 2017)

The world is populated by several billion people, and it should come to no surprise that there are several similarities and differences among these populations.  Anthropology being the study of what it means to be human aids us in understanding the cultural, biological, linguistic, and historical similarities and differences of humans in order to enable us to form a better understanding of what it means to be human.  While there are similar behaviors among all humans (in that we all walk, talk, breathe, think, and share several cultural elements in common, such as having some sort of family unit) there are some things that are similar but appear incredibly different and strange at the same time.  Today’s blog post will discuss one of those aspects: the Kanamara Matsuri, or the festival of the steel penis.

The Kanamara Matsuri is a Shinto festival celebrated in Kawasaki, Japan, and its origins date back to the Edo Period (1603-1868).  Legends claim that a demon fell in love with a woman, but as itcould not have her it took actions so no man could.  It did this by possessing her vagina and castrating two of her husbands on their wedding night.  The woman, believing she was destined to remain a virgin and never become a mother, tricked the demon by marrying a blacksmith, who forged a steel penis that he used on her, thereby breaking the demon’s teeth and banishing it from her.  

Figure 2: The Elisabeth (Source: No Author, 2017)

The legend is commemorated by a Kanayama Shrine, which is believed to hold deities that promote fertility and sexual health, thereby protecting individuals from sexually transmitted infections.  The shrine has been visited for centuries by travelers going between Tokyo and Kyoto, but the Kanamara Matsuri festival as it is known today began in 1969.  It is celebrated on the first Sunday in April, and people participate in the festival in order to pray for marriage, children, easy deliveries, or protection against venereal diseases. 

The festival itself is composed of several rituals, including the parading of three portable shrines.  The primary shrine is a large steel penis that is called the Kanamara Fune Mikoshi (Figure 1).  It is followed by the shrine referred to as the Elizabeth (Figure 2), which is meant to promote public awareness of sexual health and the existence and acceptance of sexual minorities.  The last shrine, the Kanamara Daimikoshi, is the original shrine created for the festival, which is a large, old log meant to represent an erect penis.  In addition to the parading of the shrines participants are encouraged to eat phallic shaped candies, purchase and light phallic-like candles, as well as wear penis themed clothing and masks.  

Figure 3: The Kanamara Daimikoshi (Source: No Author, 2017)

While this festival is very strange to outsiders it is important to remember to view it through a culturally relativistic lens.  This festival is of great importance to the Japanese as it is part of their culture and history, as well as serves the additional purpose of inspiring hope among those who are in need of it as they face potential infertility or sexually transmitted diseases.  The rituals associated with the Kanamara Matsuri are no different than any other ritual or tradition that you may participate in, be it grabbing a lucky rabbit’s foot or abstaining from certain behavior in order to increase the likelihood of an outcome you hope for.  Of course, one cannot neglect the fun that the Japanese (and other) participants have while participating in the Kanamara Matsuri.  As you can see in the photographs no one seems to be upset by the festivities.

References

Boulton, L. A. (2015). Letter to the Man in Carnivorous Plants. Booth, 7(11), 1.

 

Latin, I. Icons of Psychiatry. JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHIATRY, 5.

 

Nicklas, K. (2015). Sex in Japan: It’s a Straight Man’s World.

No Author. (2017, November 2). Japan's Fertility Festivals: The Hard Facts. Retrieved from All About Japan: https://allabout-japan.com/en/article/4349/