African Art & Archaeology: What We Know About the Nok Culture

Figure 1: Nok terracotta sculpture housed at the Lourve

The continent of Africa may be the cradle of humanity, and therefore it should not be a surprise that the world’s earliest cultures come from there.  One of those cultures is the Nok of Nigeria (Figure 1).  Originally discovered by accident in the early 1900s the Nok are best characterized by their magnificent terracotta sculptures, which led to the identification of their culture.  A recent resurgence in study of the Nok has yielded additional information about them, which will be covered in this blog post.  Various aspects of the Nok culture will be explored herein.

 

The Nok were initially discovered by Bernard Fagg.  The discovery of several terracotta sculptures and pieces of large sculptures was brought to his attention, and he launched a couple of excavations to learn more about the culture.  His work was largely unpublished, but he did publicize that he believed that the Nok were sophisticated artisans and the earliest iron smelters. 

There was a lull in study of the Nok due to government corruption and warfare in Nigeria.  During that time, thousands of Nok sculptures-real and manufactured-turned up on the illegal antiquities market, which allowed art historians to study them.  Unfortunately, due to the lack of archaeological contexts to accompany these finds very little is known about the cultural significance or function of these terracotta pieces.  These looting events have hampered study of these known pieces, as well as potentially future studies at various sites.

There has been a recent resurgence in interests in the Nok culture and systematic excavations at Nok sites have occurred.  From these we have gained a deeper understanding of the Nok culture.  They were an advanced culture that existed from 500 BC and 200 AD.  They settled in highland villages consisting of stone buildings and cultivated millet and gathered wild rice.  They were also iron smelters, although possibly not the earliest as several African groups worked iron.  They had a complex religion, as well as one of the earliest judiciary systems.  In addition to their terracotta they created an array of pottery, iron utilitarian and nonutilitarian items, as well as rock art. 

Investigations of the Nok and their complex culture continue.  With more research more information will be uncovered and a greater understanding of not only this culture but other African cultures.  These discoveries will help provide scholars and the public alike a better realization of human cultural development, as well as African cultural history that has largely (and inappropriately) been ignored.

References

Atwood, R.  (2011).  “The Nok of Nigeria.”  Archaeology Magazine 64 (4).

Holloway, A.  (2013).  “The Highly Advanced and Mysterious Ancient Civilization of the Nok.”  Ancient Origins.  Retrieved from http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-africa/highly-advanced-and-mysterious-ancient-civilization-nok-00679

Kahlheber, S., Höhn, A., & Rupp, N. (2009). Archaeobotanical studies at Nok sites: an interim report. Nyame Akuma, 71, 2-17.

Phillipson, D. W. (2005). African archaeology. Cambridge University Press.

Rupp, N., Ameje, J., & Breunig, P. (2005). New studies on the Nok culture of central Nigeria. Journal of African Archaeology, 3(2), 283-290.

Beauty is Pain: Exploring the Consequences of Biocultural Modifications

Biocultural modifications, or what are commonly referred to as body modifications, are semi-permanent or permanent changes to the body that represent cultural meanings, such as specifics related to social class or gender.  There are a variety of biocultural modifications practiced in today’s society, including but not limited to piercings, tattooing, plastic surgery, tanning, and more.  All of these use the body as a canvas to convey meanings specific to the culture or cultures the individual belongs or identifies with.

But there are sometimes risks, specifically to one’s overall health, associated with these biocultural modifications; risks that the bearer either ignores or accepts.  Today’s blog post will explore these risks among several biocultural modifications that are practiced today.  Biocultural modifications that will be discussed in this blog post are tight lacing/corsetry and high heels.  The reason that these have been chosen is because they represent biocultural modifications that share similar meaning within each of the societies where they are practiced: they are biocultural modifications largely practiced by females for the purpose of enhancing beauty and representing femininity.  Therefore, these biocultural modifications represent how beauty is pain and the consequences of the expectations of femininity in many culturally worldwide.

 

Figure 1: Tightlacing

Tightlacing/Corsetry

Tightlacing, formerly referred to as corsetry (Figure 1), involves the reforming of a woman’s body through the use of a corset, which is wrapped around the torso.  The purpose of tightlacing is to emphasize one’s breasts and buttocks.  This practice began during the Renaissance and gained popularity in the Victorian era, and it continues widely among tightlace enthusiasts today as well as less commonly among members of other subcultural groups (e.g. burlesque and goth subcultures). 

Tightlacing has biological consequences, which wearers today very much acknowledge and take care with so as to minimize their effects.  The placement and utilization of the corset causes the contortion and displacement of the internal organs (Figure 2).  This causes difficulties with breathing, fainting spells, and increases the risk of miscarriages and birth defects.  Medical professionals today recognize that prolonged use of the corset, particularly the wearing of certain tightlacing styles, can cause more serious medical consequences, such as permanent internal organs displacement, that can result in death.  

Figure 2: Organ displacement as caused by tightlacing

 
 

High Heels

High heels, which are shoes with elevated heels, have existed since at least 3500 BC where they were employed by Greek stage actors and Egyptian priests (Figure 3).  They were worn by men for centuries before being adopted by women and incorporated into women’s fashion in the 1400s.  Today, women’s heels are seen as a symbol of a woman’s sexuality, meant to enhance a woman’s legs and buttocks.  They are also associated with femininity and considered a stock items of womanhood, despite the fact that not all women wear them and the biological costs for their long-term use. 

Prolonged high heel use can cause several different problems.  The most basic of these problems is that it pulls the muscles and joints out of alignment, which causes pain in the foot, lower back, shoulders, and neck.  This can and will eventually lead to the weakening of the muscles of the foot.  Other long-term effects include osteoarthritis, shortened calf muscles, and altered posture.  Damage to the hip joint has also been noted among long term high heel wearers, which can impact walking.

Figure 3: High Heels

 

In conclusion, biocultural modifications hold a great importance in several societies, including our own today.  Practitioners of these accept them without hesitation, but the reality is that they should take a moment to pause and consider what the biological consequences of these practices are.  The fact that these biocultural modifications are largely reserved for women demonstrates the additional and immense consequences associated with being a woman today, which should cause everyone to stop and realize the effects of gendered ideologies.

References

Brain R. 1979.  The Decorated Body.  Hutchinson: London.

Caba, J.  2015.  “Negative Effects of High Heels: New Research Confirms What Wearing High Heels Can Do to a Woman’s Ankles.”  Medical Daily.  Retrieved from http://www.medicaldaily.com/negative-effects-high-heels-new-research-confirms-what-wearing-high-heels-can-do-341594

Fields J.  1999.  'Fighting the corsetless evil': Shaping corsets and culture, 1900-1930.  Journal of Social History 33: 355-384.

No Author.  2017.  “The Real Harm in High Heels.”  American Osteopathic Association.  Retrieved from http://www.osteopathic.org/osteopathic-health/about-your-health/health-conditions-library/womens-health/Pages/high-heels.aspx

Sanders CR and Vail DA.  2008.  Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing.  Temple University Press: Philadelphia.

Steele V.  2001.  The Corset: A Cultural History.  Yale University Press: New Haven.

Summer L.  2001.  Bound to Please: A History of the Victorian Corset.  Berg: Oxford.

Thorpe, J.R. 2016.  “A Short History of High Heels, From Ancient Greece to Carrie Bradshaw.”  Bustle.  Retrieved from https://www.bustle.com/articles/126280-a-short-history-of-high-heels-from-ancient-greece-to-carrie-bradshaw