Spotlight on Students: Primate Conservation

The following is a guest post featuring the work of students enrolled in my SA 202 course.  This exceptional work highlights the importance of primate conservation.  I hope you find this piece informative and are inspired to make a positive change in the world that will help this and other endangered primates.

Image Credit: EDGE Blog

By: Sarah Gardner

            It is common knowledge that numerous species of primates worldwide are currently considered endangered, but what may not be common knowledge is why these primate populations are declining so steadily and so rapidly. This writing assignment will focus specifically on the Rondo dwarf galago (Galagoides rondoensis), more commonly known as a type of “Bush Baby.” The Rondo dwarf galago is one of the “World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates” (Schwitzer et al. iii). I will discuss why it is important to preserve this, and in the end, all primate species from becoming extinct. Also considered here is how humans are contributing to but ultimately can prevent the extinction of endangered primates. 

            The Rondo dwarf galago is a prosimian, which is defined in the textbook “Anthropology” as, “Literally “pre-monkeys,” one of two suborders of primates,” which means that prosimians look more primitive, due to their generally larger eyes, ears, and fixed facial expressions, when compared to anthropoids (Ember et al. 91, 523). Rondo dwarf galagos are the smallest of the galago/bush baby family, with a maximum weight of 60 g (just over 2 oz.), and they are endemic to Tanzania (Schwitzer et al. 11). They are arboreal, spending most of their lives in trees, eating both fruits and insects. This species of primate is nocturnal and moves around in the vertical clinging and leaping method, meaning they hop and grasp to get where they want to go (Ember et al. 92).

            The endangered status of the Rondo dwarf galago is inextricably linked to the ever- expanding status of the human population. The National Primate Research Center at the University of Wisconsin states, “One of the most endangered bushbabies, G. rondonensis is threatened by the expansion of agriculture, charcoal manufacturing, and logging” (Gron). As the human population in Tanzania expands, there is more of a need for agricultural lands and less of a desire to preserve coastal forests, which are the sole habitat of the Rondo dwarf galago. Additionally, the people of this area utilize slash and burn techniques to clear trees for croplands, charcoal production (the most widely used fuel source in Tanzania), and logging. All of these human actions are directly contributing to the endangerment of the Rondo dwarf galago via an extreme and rapid loss of habitat (Gwegime).

            Even though humans are the main reason for the endangerment of this tiny primate, there are many things that we can do to help preserve and strengthen the remaining populations. First and foremost would be to increase conservation practices including, but not limited to, nature preserves at each of the eight locations in Tanzania where Rondo dwarf galagos are found. Another way to help minimize habitat degradation is through more sustainable and environmentally conscious charcoal manufacturing practices. These alternative methods would eliminate the slash and burn technique and instead focus on a way of acquiring the needed resource of charcoal in a more environmentally friendly way, which would allow the forest to regenerate itself while still maintaining the galago populations (Eaton). Public outreach and educational programs could also prevent the extinction of this species because if more people are aware of the problem and the need for conservation, then more can potentially be done to remedy this situation.

            It is important to protect all primates, including the Rondo dwarf galago, from extinction because they make many practical, economical, and aesthetic contributions to their given environments. Practically, primates play a large role in seed dispersal, which helps to, “regenerate tropical forest[s] and maintain a healthy ecosystem” (ESI.org). Economically, primates are good for tourism. The African Wildlife Foundation works with local communities and independent investors to build “lodges” where tourists pay to stay and to see bush babies. These lodges provide a sustainable income for small isolated communities and also a protected area for endangered primates (AWF.org). Aesthetically, the Rondo dwarf galago is “cute” and as stated by Endangered Species International, “Loss of biodiversity impoverishes our world of natural beauty and wonder, both for ourselves and for the future generations.”

            In conclusion, the Rondo dwarf galago is a small, cute, furry primate from Tanzania. It is directly threatened by human activities, which are leading to habitat degradation and loss. In spite of the fact that humans are responsible for the decline of this species, they can also be the catalyst of its preservation. Rondo dwarf galagos, and primates in general, perform many environmentally and economically important functions and should be preserved. Endangered primates face many difficulties and hardships, but with the help of dedicated individuals and conservation organizations it is possible to save these creatures from extinction.  

Works Cited

AWF.org. “Bush Baby.” African Wildlife Foundation, n.d. http://www.awf.org/wildlife-   conservation/bush-baby. Accessed 12 April 2017.

Eaton, Sam. “Tanzania is trying to turn charcoal trade from an enemy to a friend of the forest.”                PRI.org, 22 October 2015. www.pri.org/stories/2015-10-22/tanzania-trying-turn-   charcoal-trade-enemy-friend-forest. Accessed 14 April 2017. 

Ember, Carol R., et al. Anthropology. 13^th ed., Prentice Hall, 2011.

ESI.org.  “WHY PRIMATES  MATTER.” Endangered Species International, 2017.             www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org /news_jan17.html. Accessed 15 April 2015.

Gron, Kurt. “Lesser bushbaby, Galago.” Primate Info Net, 8 December 2008.                                            pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/lesser_bushbaby/cons. Accessed 14 April 2017. 

Gwegime, Justine and Gabby Wild. “Rondo Dwarf Galago (Galagoides rondoensis).” Edge of                  existence, www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=1402. Accessed 15                April 2017. 

Schwitzer, C., et al. Primates in Peril: The World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates 2014–2016.                IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS),   Conservation International (CI), and Bristol Zoological Society, Arlington, VA. iv+93pp.

Spotlight on Students: The Archaeology of States

In this latest installment of the Spotlight on Students series my SA 202 students were tasked with applying their lessons about state level societies to explaining one such society that existed in the past.  The following are exemplary examples of their great works.  Show her your appreciation for her hard work in the comments!

Elaborate burial of the Shang Dynasty (Image Source: Khan Academy)

By: Sarah Gardner

            According to the textbook Anthropology, a state level society is, “an autonomous political unit with centralized decision making over many communities with power to govern by force (e.g., to collect taxes, draft people for work and war, and make and enforce laws). Most states have cities with public buildings; full-time craft and religious specialists; an “official” art style; a hierarchical social structure topped by an elite class; and a government monopoly on the legitimate use of force to implement policies” (Ember et al. 524). In other words, a state level society is a community that has become larger, more organized, more secure, and relatively more advanced than the “chiefdom” level society that preceded it. In this assignment I will discuss the general advantages/disadvantages that are associated with this change in status, why specifically the Shang Dynasty is considered a state level society, and finally the archaeological evidence and theories that support this idea.

            There are many advantages and disadvantages that are associated with becoming a state level society. One advantage is that as agriculture becomes more efficient, it does not require so many people to maintain it. Many of the people in a region are freed up to pursue and develop other skills/crafts and to participate in art, music, and religious practices (Ember et al. 216). Populations tend to grow rapidly at this point and to concentrate in cities, which can be good for defensive purposes. The exponential growth of cities leads to the need for systematic organization, some sort of governing body, and a way to enforce the new rules (Ember et al. 215). Overall there is more safety and order, which allows a community to thrive. A negative aspect associated with the state level society is that a difference in the status or class of individual households develops. This eventually leads to the increase of a very poor, usually unhealthy lower class and because cities are so densely populated, disease can spread rapidly. Additionally, the issue of food security is a concern (Ember et al. 218). If most of the food for a city is being imported from far outside of the city then there is a potential for that food supply to be interrupted or cut off completely.

            The Shang Dynasty in ancient China (from about 1766 - 1046 B.C.) had many of the classic characteristics of a state level society. One of the most important qualifications is that there is a centralized authority that governs several outlier communities. There is evidence that the Shang Dynasty did practice this from its capital city, present day Zhengzhou, and it is stated, “These states are referred to generally as the “outside territories,” and are the subjects of the king with well-defined rights and responsibilities and a system of administration laid down by the Shang central government” ( Xue 67). Xue also notes that several “craft quarters” (another qualification for a state level society) have been discovered, each specializing in something different such as jade, bronze, bone, or ceramics (76-77). Finally, there is clear evidence that the Shang Dynasty had highly developed religious practices (yet another qualification for state level societies) and they constructed, “Large erected rocks and many [human] sacrificial pits that point to religious or worshipping functions” (Xue 75).

            Many archaeological sites and artifacts of the Shang Dynasty have been discovered and subsequently support the claim that they were a state level society. The most numerous are the oracle bones, which are among the earliest known forms of Chinese writings.  A religious official would inscribe a piece of shell or animal bone with a question or topic of the king’s choosing, and the shell or bone would then be heated until it cracked and the prophecy of the future would be read in the patterns of the crack. It is written, “Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, there have been over 100,000 pieces of animal shells or bones discovered” (Lee et al. 9). Another common Shang Dynasty era artifact is numerous pieces made of bronze. While the rest of the world was just becoming acquainted with bronze, the Shang were already highly skilled with this metal. They fashioned bronze into many ritual serving containers and weapons, as is noted in the book China, “Many bronze artifacts exist today from the Shang dynasty. It is clear they were excellent metalworkers” (Lee et al. 9). These archaeological evidences demonstrate that the Shang Dynasty had a hierarchical social structure (in this case headed by a king), centralized decision making, specialized bronze-working craftsmen, and religious authorities; all of these are components of a state level society.

            In closing, the Shang Dynasty meets all of the stipulations listed in our textbook, Anthropology, for being classified as a state level society. Centralized decision making is evidenced by the existence of a king and outlier communities, full time crafts specialists who worked with bronze were clearly established, and religious specialists were confirmed by the abundance of the oracle bones and ritualistic dishes. Social stratification and the presence of an elite class has also been observed: “By the Late Shang an elite minority of administrators, warriors, and religious figures was controlling, and benefiting from, the labors of the rest of the population” (Keightley 1). Finally, according to some of the questions inscribed on the oracle bones, and the very existence of a “warrior” class points to the fact that the government maintained and authorized the use of force to implement and enforce rules.

           

Works Cited

Ember, Carol R., et al. Anthropology. 13^th ed., Prentice Hall, 2011.

Keightley, David N. These Bones Shall Rise Again : Selected Writings on Early China. State University of New York Press, 2013. EBSCOhost.

Lee, Gisela, et al. China. Primary Source Readers. World Cultures Through Time. Teacher Created Materials, 2007. EBSCOhost.

Xue, Fengxuan. Chinese City and Urbanism: Evolution and Development. World Scientific, 2010. EBSCOhost.

Spotlight of Students: The Archaeology of States

In this latest installment of the Spotlight on Students series my SA 202 students were tasked with applying their lessons about state level societies to explaining one such society that existed in the past.  The following are exemplary examples of their great works.  Show him your appreciation for his hard work in the comments!

Kingdom of Zimbabwe (Image Source: Ancient Origins.net)

By: Steven Beza

The writing assignment, “State Level Society,” has a specific purpose, which is to highlight what a state level society entails and to emphasize on a specific society of the past. Also to discern whether or not it was a state level society, and if it had all the common traits of a state level society. If it did not have all the necessary traits to be a state level society, we then had to explain why it was still considered one. In this case I wrote about the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, which did not have all the necessary traits to be a state level society but it was still considered to be one.

The archaeological community agrees that hierarchical and centralized decision making affecting a substantial population is the key criterion of a state level society (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). There are multiple traits that make up a state level society. Social stratification can be noted in a state level society through achieved status which is accomplished through self-perseverance or achievement by an individual or through ascribed status that a society recognizes through birth that is not chosen by the individual such as race or gender(Dr. Christine Boston) (Ember, Ember, Peregrine, 2011). All state level societies are made up of smaller cities with a centralized government. An autonomous political unit that encompasses many communities within its territory that has a centralized government that can also decree and enforce laws may be viewed as a state level society (Dr. Christine Boston) (Ember, Ember, Peregrine, 2011). Resources are collected and redistributed within the society. People within a state level society specialize in different fields and occupations. Trade is controlled by elites in a state level society. “State level societies also have public works and some form of writing or record keeping” (Dr. Christine Boston) (Ember, Ember, Peregrine, 2011). “A state level society is permanent even though it may fall at some point” (Dr. Christine Boston) (Ember, Ember, Peregrine, 2011).

“An office that holds a permanent position of authority that exists no matter who is occupying it is a trait of a state level society,” (Ember, Ember, Peregrine, 2011) (Dr. Christine Boston).  

The site of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe had many traits of a state level society. Social stratification was a very prevalent feature of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. The society was divided into elites, and the peasants who served them. Livestock was considered more valuable than some of the workers that helped build and service the kingdom (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). Archaeologist came to the conclusion that within the granite walled area with granite houses is where the elites lived for various reasons (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). The number of in habitants ranging from 100-200 individuals within the Western enclosure which is believed to have been the center of the city as well as the thousands living in mud huts outside the stone area surrounding the Western enclosure helped assert this idea (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). There were also many items from overseas found within these structures that would have been unavailable to common people of the time, and the fact there was no sign of food preparation within the 60 acres of stone structures. Food was believed to have been prepared and brought to the elites as they needed (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). The state level society the Kingdom of Zimbabwe was separated into smaller areas that could be considered city like. There was the central area that had 800 ft. of walls 32ft. high with granite huts that the elite lived in and the surrounding area the peasants occupied and lived in mud huts throughout (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). The Kingdom of Zimbabwe did indeed have a centralized government that was involved in trade and religion which is believed to have been monotheistic in belief because the Shona people worshiped only one god. (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). Resources were collected and traded with other African societies along the eastern coast with connections oversea (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). The Kingdom of Zimbabwe was active in farming, herding, and was known to have mineral rich areas that they exploited. Many artifacts from the Middle East and West Africa proved that the Kingdom of Zimbabwe was involved in the trade network. Their main export was gold (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp).

Zimbabwe did have many traits of a state level society, but it still did lack in a few areas even though it was considered a state level society. The people of the kingdom of Zimbabwe were of the Shona society that branched off of the Bantu people, although they had a spoken language there was not much left as far as a written record (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp). Today there is little to no comprehension of any level of record keeping besides the structures and items found in the area. Archaeologists hope to eventually find some sort of records to better understand this society. Since there is not a strong collection of records concerning the history of Zimbabwe it makes a few traits of a state level society assumed about Zimbabwe questionable because they are established off of almost solely speculation. (e.g. trade controlled by elites, no form of written record) (www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp).

Zimbabwe was still considered a state level society even though it did not meet all the criteria required to be considered a state level society. Many variables of this society could be considered the reasons that it had the status of a state level society. Being strong in trade and religion could have aided this level of establishment. Many people of the past respected the divine right theory. Also having valued goods desired by other societies could help another society establish itself and come to power. Fertile nutrient rich land helped make it possible to farm and raise herd animals which were and still are commodities. Overall location, availability of resources, and sheer numbers along with social stratification could have helped Zimbabwe become established and to grow powerful. A culmination of all these factors could have helped Zimbabwe to be considered a state level society even though it didn’t have all the traits of a state level society. 

  

Works cited

http://www.ushistory.org/civ/7d.asp

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/mysteries-of-great-zimbabwe.html

https://quizlet.com/32780643/8-traits-of-state-level-societies-flash-cards/

https://www.google.com/search?site=&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1600&bih=794&q=images+of+kingdom+of+zimbabwe&oq=images+of+kingdom+of+zimbabwe&gs_l=img.3...13.15555.0.16394.28.14.0.14.14.0.273.2487.

Peregrine, N. Peter,Ember,Melvin,Ember,R. Carol-Anthropology 13th edition 2011

Boston,Dr.Christine-  SA-202 pp slides 2017

-Humerus Revelations of the Naked Ape 2015