Gift Giving Guide: Anthropology Style 5.0

Tis the season for graduations and other gift giving celebrations.  As such the series of gift giving posts continues with anthropologically themed gifts for the anthropologists (or interested individuals) you may know in your life.  Check out these amazing gift ideas!

For the Cultural Anthropologist

Margaret Mead is a famous cultural anthropologist who is widely known and quoted throughout the discipline.  This pillow is an excellent choice for the cultural anthropologist you may know as this Margaret Mead quote is both inspirational and on point.  It is available through WiseOldeOwl.

For the Physical Anthropologist

Physical anthropologists/evolutionary biologists will enjoy this versatile gift, which works for all sorts of different beverages.  Plus, it covers a wide breadth of evolutionary species.  Check it out through CeramicGoddess.

For the Linguistic Anthropologist

If you happen to know someone who is interested in language and culture or more specifically linguistic anthropology then this gift may be perfect!  This upcycled hardcover journal works for many purposes, which you or the gift receiver can personalize.  For sale through CognitiveSurplus.

For the Archaeologist

Bring a little light to the life of the archaeologist you happen to know with this Egyptian inspired lamp shade.  It comes in a variety of sizes, as well as two types for either ceiling or desk lamps.  Best for those interested in Egyptology but acceptable for those interested in mythology, religion, state level societies, and more.  Ships through FattadaMamma.

When Worlds Collide: Understanding the Difference Between Creole vs Pidgin Languages

Language is formally defined as a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar.  This definition is limited because it does not include nonverbal communication (addressed here), which is an additional dimension of language.  Language is a fundamental part of culture because, as with all aspects of culture, it is learned, transmitted across the generations, and is real as well as symbolic at the same time.  As culture changes so does language, which makes language a key subject of study by cultural and linguistic anthropologists.  The study of language can provide us various insights into culture, particularly cultural change through cultural contact.  When two or more cultural groups who speak radically different langauge come in contact a phenomenon known as pidgin language is created.  This is the topic of today's blog post, which explain and distinguish between pidgin and creole languages.

When cultural groups come in contact it is natural that they would want to communicate with each other, but this communication can be and often is stymied by the inability to communicate through a common language.  When this happens both groups may resort to learning each others' language or at least elements of each others' language in order to facilitate communication.  Sometimes when this happens the groups no longer speak their own languages exclusively but instead turn to this mixed language, which develops into a pidgin language.  A pidgin language is a mixed language with simplified grammar with its vocabulary borrowed from one language but the grammar from another.  There are typically no native speakers of pidgin languages because the language is in its early developmental phases.  Examples of pidgin languages include Hawaiian Creole English (an admixture of English and Native Hawaiian), Chinglish (a defunct pidgin that was a mixture of English and Chinese), and Nefamese (a mixture of various native Indian [country] languages).

As pidgin languages develop and continue to be used they may eventually become creole languages, which are languages born of mixed origins that develop from the complex blending of two or more parent languages that existed as the common languages for various ancestral groups.  Creole languages have native languages, whereas pidgins do not.  As well, creole languages have distinctive grammatical structures that typically resemble the parent languages.  Because of the solidification of Creole languages as formal languages they can be spoken, written, and learned among native and non-native speakers.  Examples of creole languages include Cajun (of the southern United States), Saramacca (of Suriname), and Kinubi (of Uganda).

So while pidgins and creole languages are distinctively different they are still related.  They are demonstrations of the dynamic and stable nature of language, as well as how cultural contact leads to various different changes, specifically to language.  In our ever expanding and globalized world more pidgins may develop, with the potential of creole languages eventually developing.

Reference

Welsch, Robert Louis, and Luis Antonio Vivanco.  Cultural Anthropology Asking Questions about Humanity. New York: Oxford UP, 2015.

Beauty in the "Beasts": Ancient Perceptions of Genetic Disorders

Today’s blog post is dedicated to my Anth 102 students, who were tasked with completing a service learning assignment as part of their course requirements.  For this assignment they were to create a teaching/learning tool on a topic related to Mendelian Genetics.  The following is my contribution to this initiative.

Biology and culture intersect in a variety of different ways.  The most common means of intersection is the cultural preference toward certain biological characteristics.  For example, blonde hair and blue eyes is considered beautiful in many modern cultures, although both characteristics are randomly inherited based on the alleles present in each contributing parent.  Much like today, people in the past placed importance and preference on specific traits, although they are not traits that most modern peoples would find preferential.  Today’s blog post will explore ancient perceptions of specific genetic disorders, and the ancient Egyptians, Olmec, and Inca will be the subject of this discussion.

Ancient Egyptians & Achondroplasia

Achondroplasia, popularly known as “dwarfism”, is a genetic disorder that presents as short stature and limbs in afflicted individuals.  Achondroplasia is inherited through an autosomal dominant chromosome, which means that individuals need only one copy of the allele to have the condition.  This situation, where individuals ­­­carry only one copy of the chromosome, is biologically favored as individuals who carry two copies typically are stillborn or die shortly after birth.  This condition is caused by a mutation of a specific gene, known as the FGFR3 gene, and because of the this, it is common for two individuals who do not have achondroplasia to produce a child with achondroplasia.  Because of the automsomal dominance nature of this trait there is also an increased likelihood that the offspring of two parents with achondroplasia will also have this condition but could still produce offspring without the condition if they pass on the recessive, non-affected chromosome.

Figure 1: Bas relief of Bes, an Egyptian god with achondroplasia (Image Source)

 

Views of those with achondroplasia do vary within modern societies, although there is a history of them being treated poorly in American culture.  In ancient Egyptian culture, individuals with achondroplasia were revered as evidenced by iconographic and historical records.  Their condition was not considered a medical disorder based on the lack of mention of the condition in Egyptian medical texts.  Individuals with achondroplasia were employed in special positions, such as personal attendants to the Pharaohs and noble citizens, animal tenders, jewelers, entertainers, and midwives.  This was because these individuals were considered to be manifestations of the primary god, the Sun god, Ra.  In addition, two of the lesser gods, Ptah and Bes (Figure 1), were depicted with this condition, further supporting the notion that individuals with achondroplasia were celebrated.  Overall, these individuals were not shunned from society but instead embraced and celebrated.

Ancient Olmec and Down’s Syndrome

Down’s syndrome is a genetic condition caused by having an extra chromosome.  Typically, humans have 46 chromosomes, but individuals with Down’s syndrome have an additional copy of the 21^st chromosome.  It is uncertain how specifically Down’s syndrome is passed on to offspring, but the advanced age of the mother is believed to increase the likelihood of this condition existing in offspring.  Individuals with Down’s syndrome typically have diminished intellect, as well as physical features, including flattened faces, broad noses, slanted eyes, shorter stature, and small hands and feet.

 

Figure 2: Were Jaguar Child Sculpture (Image Source)

 

The Olmec culture existed in Central America from 1500 BC to AD 300.  It is a culture characterized by various religious cults, the most prolific of which centered around the jaguar.  Jaguars were considered sacred among the Olmec, a trend consistent with later cultures (e.g. the Maya and Aztecs), and several jaguar-like sculptures have been discovered and are associated with the culture.  The most common is that of a child with feline characteristics (Figure 2).  Scholars analyzing the sculptures’ features have identified similarities between them and the physical features of individuals with Down’s Syndromes.  Features in the sculpture that are identified as being linked to Down’s syndrome include the slanted eyes, puffy faces, downward drawn lower lips, and broad noses.  It is believed that the Olmec believed that individuals with Down’s syndrome were the offspring of jaguar-human sexual relations, specifically that of a relationship between a jaguar-deity and human woman, and therefore individuals with Down’s syndrome were held in high esteem.

 

Ancient Inca & Cleft Lip

Cleft lip is the lack of fusion of the skin that makes up the lip.  Cleft lip can occur on either side of the lip or in the center.  There is no common incidence of the location of the cleft lip.  It is unclear what specifically causes cleft lip, although it is believed that both genetic and environmental factors lead to this condition.  Individuals with cleft lip often have problems eating, as well as deficiencies linked to proper dental development.

Figure 3: Inca Blackware pottery depicting cleft lip (Google Images)

 Individuals born with a cleft lip were believed to have been blessed by lightning and therefore were considered godly and special among ancient Inca people (Figure 3).  Those with cleft lip were reserved for special sacrificial rituals honoring lightning and sacred mountain huacas (sacred places).  This may not seem like a benefit in our modern contexts, but to the Inca becoming a sacrifice was a great honor, one reserved for a sacred few.  While this practice is associated specifically with the ancient Inca there is evidence of the veneration of individuals with cleft palate occurring among earlier groups, such as the Moche.  It is believed that the Moche identified individuals with cleft palate being the children of the lightning, and these individuals were treated accordingly, with both admiration and fear. 

Bibliography

Dasen, V.  1988.  “Dwarfism in Egypt and Classical Antiquity: Iconography and Medical History.”  Medical History 32: 253-276.

Kozma, C.  2006.  “Historical Review: Dwarfs in Ancient Egypt.”  American Journal of Medical Genetics 140A: 303-311.

Milton, G. and R. Gonzalo.  1974.  “Jaguar Cult—Down’s Syndrome-Were-Jaguar.”  Expedition 16: 33-35.

Murdy, CN.  1981.  “Congenital Deformities and the Olmec Were-Jaguar Motif.”  American Antiquity 46: 861-871.

No Author.  2012.  “Achondroplasia.”  Genetics Home Reference: Your Guide to Understanding Genetic Conditions.  https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/achondroplasia

No Author.  2015.  “Facts About Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate.”  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/cleftlip.html

No Author.  2016.  “Facts About Down’s Syndrome.”  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/DownSyndrome.html

Reeves, C.  2001.  Egyptian Medicine.  Shire Publication LTD: Buckinghamshire.

Staller, J.E. and B. Stross.  2013.  Lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Perspectives.  Oxford University Press: Oxford.

Innocence Lost: The Forced Assimilation of American Indian Youth through the American & Canadian Boarding/Residential School Systems

Residential School of unknown location (Canada).  Image Source: Simon Frasier University

Prior to Christopher Columbus’s arrival to the “New World” in the 15^th century it is estimated that there were between 8 to 18 million indigenous people across the American continents.  These populations have been decimated as a direct result of various purposeful as well as unintentional assimilationist and genocidal practices by European colonial powers.  Today’s blog post will explore one of these assimilationist practices that occurred in recent history, which is known as the Boarding School System in the United States and the Residential School System in Canada.  This post will discuss the Boarding/Residential school system, its effects, as well as the reconciliation efforts that have been attempted as a means of making amends to American Indian groups who continue to be affected by these schools.

The Boarding/Residential school system began as a means of assimilating American Indian children into dominant white American culture through strict vocational training, intensive English language curriculum, and Christian conversion practices administered through mandatory educational programs sponsored in part by the federal government and the Church.  These programs were the product of work by Herbert Welsh and Henry Pancoast who believed that they could “save” American Indians from themselves.  The dominant ideology of many white Americans during that time was that American Indians were too primitive to survive on their own without white American interventions.  Captain Richard H. Pratt furthered this ideology by coining the phrase “Kill the Indian and save the man”, which promoted the notion that American Indian culture was far inferior to that of white American culture and therefore had to be destroyed.  All three individuals believed that the best way to “reform” the American Indians was through educational programming, which they modeled after prison education systems that promoted vocational training as a successful means of behavioral modification.  Eventually their collective efforts produced the Boarding School system in the United States in the 1860s, which was adopted as the Residential School system in Canada a few years later.   
There were various types of Boarding and Residential schools that existed throughout the United States and Canada.  Early versions of these schools took the form of reservation schools as well as day schools that were either near or directly on reservation lands.  Students were expected to attend these school to receive educations that would allow them to “successfully function” in mainstream American society.  Students were subject to strict, militaristic routines and taught vocational skills based on gender.  Boys were trained to be carpenters, metalsmiths, or farmers, while girls were trained in domestic duties, primed for jobs as launderers, sewers, cooks, and maids.  When these schools were not seen as sufficient in leading to their intended end goals the American and Canadian governments passed legislation that expanded the schools to boarding type facilities that children were mandated to attend.  These institutions were often far from reserve lands, providing limited contact between children, their families and friends, as well as their indigenous ways of life.  Parents who did not willingly surrender their children to the boarding institutions were subjected to harsh consequences, including the withholding of monetary aid and food rations, as well as potentially being jailed.  As a result many children as young as four years old were reluctantly given over or forcibly taken from their homes, and most had limited contact with their families over the next decade and a half they were institutionalized.  

Tom Torlino, Navajo, before and after he entered the Carlisle Indian School. Image Copyright: Smithsonian Institution.  Image Source: PBS.org

Upon arrival to the boarding institution the children had their hair cut in contemporary American styles, their names changed, and were forced to don American clothing.  They were also instructed to not speak their native language, which if they did not follow suit meant they were met with harsh punishments ranging from physical beatings to individual torture (e.g. sticking needles into their tongues).  As part of their education children were forced to work at the schools, which took the form of maintaining the buildings that they learned and lived in.  Many of these structures quickly fell into disrepair, which were not properly maintained by trained professional due in part to limited funding and the belief that this would encourage the children to become more skilled in their respective vocational careers.  Children were also “leased out” to local families as a means of assimilating them into the dominant American culture but in actuality took the form of slave labor as the children were forced to work in harsh and unsafe conditions for no pay.  

Corruption was rampant at the boarding schools.  Children were subject to various types of abuse by employees, adults allowed onto the premises, as well as by other children.  Sexual, physical, and psychological abuse was prevalent, and it is estimated that as many as 24% of children died at the boarding schools as a direct result of abuse and neglect.  This may not seem that high, but many of the sick children were discharged to their families to keep the number of deaths on the premises low.  Of these it is estimated that up to 75% of the children died upon discharge.  Several unmarked graves have been found at many boarding institutions, and in them the bodies of children who were enrolled at the school as well as babies, the products of rapes committed at the school, were discovered, leading many to believe that the government estimates may have been grossly under reported.   

Children who survived the boarding schools often graduated with elementary school level educations having not received anything past a fifth grade education, as well as several psychological and physical maladies.  This has led to numerous intergenerational effects that still resonate in American Indian communities today.   Due to the lack of familial contact throughout their formative years many survivors are unsure how to raise children, which leads to continued and often unintentional child neglect and abuse.  Many survivors turned to drug and alcohol to cope with their trauma, leading to high incidences of substance abuse, and several have attempted suicide.  The increased suicide rates among American Indians today is attributed to the effects of the Boarding/Residential School Systems, as are the incidences of domestic abuse.  

Boarding School residents praying before going to bed.  Copyright: Northwest Museum of Arts & Culture/Eastern Washington State Historical Society, Spokane, WA  Image Source: Amnesty International

The Boarding/Residential school system was finally closed beginning in the 1970s, with the last finally closing in 1996 (in Saskatchewan, Canada).  The Canadian government issued a formal apology in 2008 for the Residential School System and its role in harming American Indian cultures and individuals.  The Canadian government has since set aside a large sum of money to pay reparations to those directly affected in order to assist them in seeking medical attention for their physical and psychological wounds.  The United States government has not yet issued a formal apology to the American Indians affected-directly or indirectly-by the boarding schools, nor offered any other types of supports to them. 

The Boarding/Residential school system is one of many assimilationist and genocidal acts that American Indians have been subjected to and yet it, as with the others, are neither discussed nor acknowledged by the general public, largely due to ignorance of such events occurring.  It is my sincere hope that by exposing you, the reader, to these events that you will not only acknowledge and recognize them and their continued effects on American Indian culture and individuals, but that you will also become more aware of other situations that have occurred as well as those that continue today throughout the United States and Canada (e.g. water contamination on reservation lands and the high incidence of uninvestigated missing and Aboriginal women throughout Canada).  By becoming aware of these situations and bringing the appropriate attention to them positive changes can be initiated.

This post coincides with a previous post that focuses on institutional discrimination.  You can learn more about institutional discrimination here.

References Cited

Animikii.  2016.  “About Residential Schools.”  Legacy of Hope Foundation: Raising Awareness of the Legacy of Residential Schools.  http://www.legacyofhope.ca/about-residential-schools

Marr, Carolyn.  No Date.  “Assimilation Through Education: Indian Boarding Schools in the Pacific Northwest”  University Libraries, University of Washington.

 

No Author.  2009.  “The Residential School System.”  Indigenous Foundations, University of British Columbia.  http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html

 

No Author.  2015.  “Indian Residential Schools.”  Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada.  https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100015576/1100100015577

 

No Author.  No Date.  “Boarding Schools: Struggling of Cultural Repression.”  Native Words, Native Warriors.  National Museum of the American Indian.  http://www.nmai.si.edu/education/codetalkers/html/chapter3.html

 

No Author.  No Date.  “History and Culture: Boarding Schools.”  American Indian Relief Council.  http://www.nrcprograms.org/site/PageServer?pagename=airc_hist_boardingschools

 

Smith, Andrea.  2007.  “Soul Wound: The Legacy of Native American Schools”  Amnesty International Magazine.  http://www.amnestyusa.org/node/87342

 

Ziibiwing Center of Anishinabe Culture & Lifeways.  2011.  American Indian Boarding Schools: An Exploration of Global Ethnic & Cultural Cleansing.  http://www.sagchip.org/ziibiwing/planyourvisit/pdf/aibscurrguide.pdf