The Tiwanaku Culture: A Unique Take on an Empire

The Site of Tiwanaku (Image Source: Live Science)

Several ancient empires, such as the ancient Roman or Greek empires, are well known and admired by the general public.  They are recognized for their cultural and political achievements, typically due to great military conquests.  These representations tend to dominate the notions of empire, but there is at least one unique empire that did not rely on military conquest to spread its cultural and political might.  This empire is not widely known to the general public but is of great importance to archaeological scholars, particularly Andeanists.  Today’s blog post is dedicated to the discussion of Tiwanaku, an empire, site, and culture that is considered by some to be one of the greatest Andean empires.

Figure 1: Map of Tiwanaku (IMage Source: Archaeology's Interactive Dig)

The Tiwanaku culture is represented by the ancient city of Tiwanaku, which is located in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin in the modern day country of Bolivia (Figure 1), and it existed in its prime from 400 A.D. to 900 A.D.   The city used to be considered a spiritual center that was patronized by religious pilgrims from across the Andes, but today we know that the city was both a religious and urban center that at its height housed anywhere from 30,000 to 70,000 people.  Much of the residential area is under modern agricultural fields and therefore inaccessible, but the spiritual center is a protected archaeological site that has been thoroughly investigated by several well known archaeologists.  This area is composed of several structures, although the most notable are the Akapana and Kalasasaya (Figure 2).  Both are temple structures that dominate the area and house architectural features and bas-relief sculptures that epitomize the gods, specifically the Sun and Staff gods, worshiped at the site.

Figure 2: Tiwanaku Temples (Image Source: Tiwy)

In the last decade archaeologists have begun to excavate in the residential areas surrounding the spiritual center of the city, and they have determined that the site was home to a diverse array of Andean groups.  Not only was it a rather cosmopolitan city with its diverse ethnic inhabitants but it was a booming agricultural center, as well.  Potatoes and quinoa were cultivated in the harsh mountainous environment, which were maintained through a series of sophisticated irrigation systems and structures.  Camelids, such as llamas and alpacas, were raised for meat and wool, as well as used in rituals as sacrifices in the spiritual and residential areas of the city.

The Tiwanaku culture is characterized by specific iconography, principally the Staff God, as well as diagnostic pottery, such as the drinking vessel known as a kero (Figure 3).  Tiwanaku iconography and wares have been found throughout the Andes, from the north coast of Peru to northern Chile.  Several of these pieces appear to have been imported to these regions directly from the source, but much of the iconography and pottery styles have been incorporated into the local styles, which is demonstrated through syncretic mixes of iconography and locally made goods made in the Tiwanaku style.  What is unique about this phenomenon is that it does not appear that the Tiwanaku style was spread through conquest but instead through spiritual influence, making the Tiwanaku empire a unique one since it appears that no blood was shed in the process.  

 

Figure 3: Newly Excavated Tiwankau Style Kero at an Site in Arica,Chile (Image Source: Author's Image)

It is unclear what specifically led to the decline of the Tiwanaku empire.  It is believed, however, that the decline may have been due to environmental factors that gradually eroded away at the resources required to maintain Tiwanaku’s dominance.  Archaeological evidence does seem to suggest that the decline of Tiwanaku left it vulnerable, and it was raided and attacked by various outsider groups as a result.  The city was eventually abandoned, but its spiritual influence remained for many years after, particularly among the Inca who claimed their ancestors were from the sacred city.  Today, the site of Tiwanaku continues to fascinate people and it is currently considered a UNESCO World Heritage Site.       

References

http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/567

http://www.ancient.eu/Tiwanaku/

http://www.livescience.com/26792-tiwanaku.html

  

The Power of Privilege: Understanding Specifically What Privilege Is & Does

The word privilege invokes a variety of emotions, thoughts, and mental images.  For many, it conjures up ideas of people with monetary wealth and luxury goods, such as expansive mansions, couture clothing, luxury cars, and more.  Chances are that when those images come to mind there are specific people that model and embody that way of life.  What do they look like to you? 

Figure 1: Think about what specific images of PEOPLE & THINGS come to mind when you think about privilege.

If you thought that the patrons of these lavish items were white, blonde, blue eyed, and young women and/or older (and “distinguished”) men you are not alone.  These images are very much culturally & socially defined and driven.  Today’s blog post is going to discuss these cultural and social constructions of power, what they look like, and how they affect our daily interactions within ourselves and with others.  These cultural and social constructions of power are the topic of privilege.  I will start by discussing privilege from a general perspective for now so as to clarify the term and ideologies associated with it for ease of understanding, but I will focus on to specific examples of privilege later in this post to demonstrate the latter points about the effects of these privileges on the individual and on group interactions.

Privilege in everyday language refers to a system of rewards, opportunities, and freedoms afforded to an individual but not the rest.  This definition is quite comparable to how the term is used academically to discuss social inequalities that exist in every culture and society.  Typically when one discusses privilege the discussion focuses on one type of privilege, such as male privilege, white privilege, Christian privilege.  This narrow focus on privilege can be problematic because it provides too fine a lens in understanding specifically what privilege is as it spotlights one type of privilege and how it affects people but sometimes (or, in my experiences, more often than not) distorts a learner’s understanding of what specifically privilege is.  While it is good to focus on one type of privilege and specific types of privilege do exist, it is important to know that privilege refers to any individual or group of individuals who have real but often invisible access to power and advantages that other members of the culture and society do not have. 

Now let us break down this definition further, starting with real but often invisible.  This is crucial to understanding privilege because most of the time individuals are unaware of their privilege.  This may not be a matter of willful ignorance on the part of the privileged but simply a matter of lack of knowledge and understanding of the social agreements that provide benefits to some as well as the social struggles that deny access to others. 

Another part of the definition that we need to focus on is access to power.  When one thinks of power all sorts of ideas come to mind.  A primary theme that is present with these ideas of power is control and influence.  This can refer to individual power, meaning the power to control one’s destiny or future, or group power, which refers to an entire group of people having the ability to collectively control their own destiny or future (e.g. choose what to wear, where to live, who to interact with, what to do for work or in one’s free time, etc.).  Now I can already hear you thinking (and/or saying) what do you mean I do not have control in what I wear?  Of course I can choose what I want to wear!  Well, I hate to break it to you, but culture very much controls your decision making there.  There are social and cultural expectations pertaining to what is acceptable to wear and when.  For example, a business suit is typically considered masculine attire.  We see this in the advertising and imagery associated with advertising and businesses associated with men (e.g. Armani suits or Men’s Wearhouse [Figure 2]).

Figure 2: Giorgio Armani Advertisement (Left) & Men's Wearhouse Advertisement (Right)

A man who wears a business suit is considered professional, intelligent, and capable.  A woman who also wears a business suit is often times considered the same: professional, intelligent, and capable (Figure 3).  But what happens when we switch the clothing type for our hypothetical man and woman?  What if we put a man and woman in the same dress (Figure 4)?  What are your thoughts then?  Chances are that no one (or very few people) would question the woman wearing the dress because culturally we view dresses as women’s attire, but a man who opts to wear a dress would be considered absurd or less of a man.  So why is it that a woman can wear a business suit, which is typically described as masculine attire, but a man cannot wear a dress, which is typically associated with women?  Because we, as Americans, place importance and preference on men over women and therefore a woman who wears masculine clothing is validating a man’s worth whereas men who wear women’s clothing are diminishing their power and worth by taking on a inferior role as a woman.  And before you start getting upset, critically think about what I am saying here.  Who would you follow if you were trapped in a seemingly impossible and incredibly dangerous situation: a man or a woman?  Be honest.  Most people (re: Americans) would follow the man because men are viewed as protectors, authoritarians, and leaders.  Women are not less capable of fulfilling those roles, but we (re: Americans) view women as nurturers, subservient, and followers.  Furthermore, we tend to believe that these characteristics are natural, biological traits and not culturally dictated and determined (which they are!).  This is an example of male privilege because emphasis and preference in power and advantages are placed on men over women.

Figure 3: Man & Woman Wearing A Suit

Figure 4: Man & Woman Wearing the Same Dress  (Note: Matt Stone & Trey Parker, the two men pictured centered, were intentionally spoofing the outfits worn by Jennifer Lopez (left) and Gwyneth Paltrow (right), but they received heavy criticism not for making fun of the two female entertainers but for daring to wear dresses.)

Now let’s look at this example from a different perspective.  If we have two men wearing a business suit, what do you think?  Do your perceptions change if I say that one man is Caucasian (white) and another is African-American (black)?  What if one is Hispanic and the other is Asian?  Do your thoughts of these men change?  You may not feel comfortable answering those questions or you may believe that your thoughts and feelings do not change.  Again, however, think about these questions critically and honestly.  Scholarly studies demonstrate that perceptions do change and that preference is given to Caucasian individuals over racial minorities, such as African-Americans & Hispanics.  These individuals are often viewed as trying too hard, faking it, or selling out when they don professional business attire than individuals who are Caucasian or Asian.  Why?  Because in American culture and society there is a belief that Caucasians and Asians are smarter and better than all others.  Again, one need only turn on prime time television (or even non-prime time television) to see this demonstrated.  Leading roles on popular shows on most networks are filled by white actors.  Or even more telling, do a web image search for the following terms separately: Men, Women, and Couples.  Who shows up?  

Figures 5, 6, & 7 are the web image searches that came up for me.  Are they any different for you?  As you can see in my image searches all of the subjects are Caucasian (white) or appear to be.  I do not know who these individuals are so I cannot 100% guarantee that any (or all) of them identify as being Caucasian, but their appearance does speak volumes about white privilege in our (American) society.  It is both obvious (on television) and latent (in web searches).

Figure 5: Web Image Search for Men

Figure 6: Web Image Search for Women

Figure 7: Web Image Search for Couples

The one part of the definition that I want to discuss is the last part: advantages that other members of the culture and society do not have.  Privilege provides advantages to some while denying it to others.  We often see this in access to the best and most advantageous jobs, housing, and education.  For example, think about the following professions: Medical Doctor, Janitor, Teacher, Gardener, Accountant, and Manicurist.  Who comes to mind when you think of these positions?  You might be catching on and realizing that specific types of individuals (based on race and educational level) come to mind when you think of each of these professions, and again, that is very much culturally dictated and driven.  Certain professions are associated with certain types of people, and these ideas are reinforced one way or another by individuals in our society through education, individual interactions, popular media, etc. as comedienne Margaret Cho points out.  She makes light of this situation but it is unfortunately a reality that all individuals must face, be it those with privilege and those without. 

But as I have already discussed racial privilege I want to demonstrate this point about advantages of some members of the culture and society over others with another example.  It is actually the example that inspired this post.  I want to discuss heterosexual privilege, or privilege afforded to individuals who are interested in the opposite sex.  A couple of months ago a very good friend of mine was turning 30, which in American culture is considered a big deal and unfortunate age milestone (which demonstrates privileges placed on the young), and I wanted to find just the right card, not necessarily because of my friend’s age but because I wanted the “perfect” card.  Now for the purposes of this story I will disclose that this friend is homosexual, meaning this friend is attracted to members of the same sex.  I thought it might be humorous to find a sexually provocative card for this individual, but all of the cards that met this criterion stressed the notion of heterosexuality.  Cards for men featured women in provocative attire and poses, and cards for women featured men in provocative attire (or lack thereof) and poses (Figure 8).  All of these emphasized and promoted heterosexuality in an extreme way.  I decided to move on to less sexually provocative card and still heterosexual ideologies were emphasized: men pursuing a date with a woman and a woman pursuing a date with a man.  Heterosexual privilege is very easy to see in regards to the opposition against the Supreme Court of the United States legalizing homosexual marriage throughout the USA, but it is subtly emphasized and reinforced through mundane experiences, such as looking for a birthday card at the local supermarket.

Figure 8: Sexually Provocative Birthday Cards for Men (Left) and Women (Right)

 

So why do we need to be aware of privilege?  Why does it matter?  Because privilege-be it that you have it or not-affects our everyday experiences and interactions.  If you are a member of a privileged group you have fewer daily struggles than members of a non-privileged group.  Also, these privileges also affect how you interact with other individuals, specifically based on their status as either privileged or not privileged.  These culturally created and guided notions and ideas do affect our every day interactions and experiences in both positive and negative ways.  They provide us/some access to material and social resources, while also denying us/some to those same material and social resources.  I recommend that you become more aware of the cultural interactions around you and your own privileges (and/or lack thereof) and critically evaluate how they affect you.  Once you realize and understand that think about what those mean and how they affect you and those around-positively and negatively.  Then start thinking about what you may want to do to change (or not change) yourself and your actions in our society and culture.  You may elect to do nothing, you may elect to make drastic changes, or you may elect to change some things.  No one course of action is right or wrong despite what others may think or believe.  You ultimately must do what is most comfortable for yourself.  But gaining the understanding and awareness of the cultural forces around you and that affect your life is the most important step.

For more on privilege check out this amazing video and article that was published on The Huffington Post.

References Cited

Scott, Mona.  2012:  Think Race & Ethnicity.  Pearson Education.

Welsch, Robert L., Luis A. Vivanco.  2015.  Cultural Anthropology: Asking Questions About Humanity.  Oxford University Press.

Spotlight on Students: Gender Comparisons

The following post features the work of a student in my Anth 101: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology course.  In this assignment they were tasked with comparing the gender norms of the Burrnesha with those that exist in the United States.  This is the last time I will give this assignment, so it is with great pleasure that I feature this exemplary work.

The Burrnesha of Albania are also known as "Sworn Virgins".  They are women who take on the roles of men due to financial hardships, to avoid a bad marriage, or to assist their families.

By: Jennifer Greenlee

In the United States, we are now starting to slowly open ourselves up to accepting that sex and gender are not interchangeable. We are starting to see that just because a child was born with little boy parts it does not mean that he in terms of sex will want to live as a boy in terms of gender his whole life. The difference between sex and gender is that “sex refers to biological differences”, and gender “refers to the cultural construct of whether one is female, male or something else” (Gezon and Kottak 146). The sex of the baby boy was determined when the little boy is born and the gender of the little boy will be decided after he becomes more aware of his culture and how he feels in it. In our culture, the majority of the time, being male or female is a choice that we can freely make should we decide to be the opposite gender than that of the sex we were born. In other cultures, Albania for example, women used to take an oath of celibacy to become a man for various reasons and not always by choice but by necessity. The U.S. is just now starting to become somewhat accepting of the differences in regards to sex and gender, while other cultures have been giving their people the choice since the fifteenth century.

             

Albania is a little country in Europe that is located on the southwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula and is mostly made up of mountains. Albania also has flat land along the coast of the Adriatic Sea for agricultural purposes; the agriculture does not bring in money as Albania is one of the poorer countries in the world. Albania currently has a rising democratic government, but was a communist country for an extended period of time. During this communist time, women in Albania were seen as half of the value of men and were only to take care of the home and children. Albanian men during this time were allowed to carry weapons and were generally given more freedoms than a woman (Bilefsky). Albanian women were given the option to live as men for a list of reasons, but the most common seemed to be due to a shortage of men caused by wars turning out high numbers of death among men or because of a natural death of a male member of a family.  In these cases where the man of the family is now deceased and there is not another male to assume the role of the head of the family, a woman in the family is lawfully allowed to do so should she choose. In the case where a woman decides, or is forced, to take on the role of a man, she will then take an oath of virginity and become what was known as a “sworn virgin” and will then “assumed male gender roles and activities to meet the societal needs when there was a shortage of men” (Gezon and Kottak 161). After this oath is taken the woman will dress and act like a man for the duration of her life and is held accountable to that by her culture.

            

 Women of the Albanian culture did not just take the role of a man to assume a lead role when needed, they also took the oath to become a “sworn virgin” to prevent or get out of an arranged marriage. Albania is a country that was “strictly patriarchal, patrilineal”, meaning that the wealth of the family came down through the men’s side and that once the man and woman were married, the woman would move in with the man’s family (Tarifa). With Albania being “such a male dominated society” that was a very “oppressive culture for women”, becoming a sworn virgin gave women a chance to come out of that oppression and be treated as an equal to men giving them new freedoms that they would not ever experience as a women (Tarifa). In Albania, the choice to live as a different gender was most often a means of necessity. Living as a man became a necessary part of these women’s lives as they either needed to be the head of a family or needed get out of an unwanted situation, and in some cases just wanted to simply be treated as an equal and have more freedoms. For a women in the U.S., the need to live as a man looks very different and is hardly ever a necessity like it is in Albania.

            

 The United States of America is located in North America and is bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The U.S. has a democracy that is based on elections of presidents by the people that reside in the U.S. The U.S. is also one of the wealthiest countries in the world. In the U.S., historically speaking, traditional families consisted of a mother, father and some children. Traditionally, and much like the Albanian family, the father would go out and work as the mother stayed home to take care of the kids and the house. As decades have passed, the U.S. has started to see a large percentage of women join the work force as almost an equal to men. In Albania as decades past, women were allowed to become equals to men if they took a vow of celibacy and dressed and acted like men. In Albanian culture, it was acceptable for a woman to decide to take on the role as a man, but here in the U.S. it was looked down upon in our culture. For a women to dress as a man in the U.S. and try to act like an equal was not something that was socially acceptable. Until recently, if a baby was born as a woman, she was expected to live the entirety of her life as a woman doing women specific jobs. If the little girl felt the urge at any point to dress like a man, she needed to do it in private and may be shamed for doing so if someone found out. There has never been a need for women in the U.S. to dress like a man and the only reason it is done now is because women feel that they identify more as a man than a woman.

             

The U.S. is recently starting to recognize the difference between gender and sex and is slowly starting to accept the notion that people may identify more with the opposite gender then that of the sex they were born. Social norms are slowly starting to change as more women are starting to join the work force in positions that were once deemed “for men only” jobs. The U.S. is starting to lift the demands of women staying home to raise the kids as families are changing to single mother families or same sex families. The purpose for gender in the U.S. and Albania is clear for what the needs for men and women are, but as the needs of the culture start to change in the U.S. and Albania, so does the purpose for gender. There will always be gender roles and those roles will always be fulfilled, but the person that fills those gender roles may look a little different then they used to.

             

In doing this assignment, I have learned that both of these countries have gender roles that need to be filled for the purpose of life. In both the U.S. and Albania, women and men are typically doing the same things for their family and in both countries, the women have the ability to live a life as a man. The biggest difference between these two countries is that Albania is doing it out of necessity or to get out from under oppression and the U.S. is doing it because some people identify more with one gender or the other. The other difference I noticed is that in Albania, it is in some cases encouraged, while in the U.S. it can be greatly looked down upon. The biggest thing that I took away from this assignment was that culture plays the biggest role in deciding whether a person will take on the role of a different gender and be accepted or mocked. I also learned that while Albania heavily relies on the strength of “men” to be the providers, the U.S. with its rise in single mothers and same-sex couples, is getting away from relying on men to be the providers. This was a very thought provoking assignment  in regards to the way culture plays the biggest part in a lot of life changing decisions that people make.

           

           

Works Cited

Background Note: Albania." Background Notes On Countries Of The World: Albania (2007): 1. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 21 July 2015.

Bilefsky, Dan. “Sworn to virginity and living as men in Albania”. New York Times. Europe, June 23, 2008. Web. 20 July 2015.

Gezon, and Conrad Kottak. ANTH 101 Cultural Anthropology Truckee Meadows Community College. United States: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014. Print.

Tarifa. 2007. "Balkan Societies of "Social Men": Transcending Gender Boundaries." Societies Without Borders 2 (1): 75-92. Available at: http://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/swb/vol2/iss1/6