Body Language: An Exploration of Body Modifications

Tattoos, body piercings, corsetry, foot binding, scarification, tanning, and cosmetic surgery.  What do all of these have in common?  They are all different types of body modifications.  Some are no longer widely practiced, if at all, while others are practiced today by societies and cultures around the world.  The motivations and meanings behind the practice of body modifications vary cross-culturally, which are going to be explored further in this blog post.

Body modifications are acts of deliberate manipulation of the natural form of the body for non-medical enhancement.  There are a wide variety of body modifications that have been practiced for many centuries in cultures around the world.  Tattooing, piercing, and scarification are some of the oldest body modifications due to their ease in creation.  They are also still practiced today in part because of that easiness.  More recent body modifications, such as cosmetic surgery, have come about only because of advances in technology that allow individuals to alter the body in intended ways and with minimal consequences.

Body modifications embody a variety of meanings.  The most common identities that are represented by body modifications include the following:

• Religious: A shared set of beliefs, rituals, actions, etc. to appeal to a mystical god-like being or beings.
• Gender: The social character on an individual based on their biological sex, defining interactions and social values between “genders”. 
• Social Status/Rank: A socially constructed form of identity based on the consumption and control of essential and nonessential resources within a group.  Social status/rank can be earned (known as achieved status) or given to someone by birth right (known as ascribed status).  Another way to understand the difference between achieved and ascribed status is to think of it as follows: Paris Hilton was born into America’s upper class, which is her ascribed status, but she earned fame and notoriety through her reality TV career and other exploits, which is her achieved status.
• Ethnicity: generally defined as groups sharing common characteristics, including common biological, cultural, linguistic, ideological, historical, and national traits.

Often times, one type of body modification (e.g. tattooing) will hold one meaning in one culture (rank/status among pre-contact Samoans) but a completely different meaning in another (aesthetics among modern Western cultures).  Because of this, body modifications are known to be permanent to semi-permanent markers of identity, and one means of understanding groups and cultures, both past and present.

 Kat Wakefield, alternative model, showing off her ink that she wears proudly as a signature of beauty. (Photo Credit: Tim Maxfield)

Individual from the Azapa Valley in northern Chile.  Artificial cranial modification was practiced among ancient Andean groups either as a marker of ethnicity or ascribed status.  Photo taken by author in 2009.  MASMA Collection.  Proper permissions granted.

Lotus Foot, aka foot binding, was practiced among the Chinese as a means of demonstrating ascribed status, femininity, and beauty.  High status women were the primary practitioners but some men who identified as women did practice the Lotus Foot, as well.  (Reference: library.thinkquest.org)

Ashley Winterbourne shows off her facial piercings, which she finds beautifully awesome.

Valerie Heigert Simpson getting tattooed.  Note the device used to tattoo people today is being held in the "artist's" hands.  In the past, tattoos were administered a variety of ways, and what we call artists today went by just as many names.  :)

More pics to come.

Guest Blog Post 2: Environmental Anthropology

The following post is from a former student of mine, Caroline Robertson, and it pertains to her internship that she is turning into a spotlight on environmental anthropology:

I am now beginning week four of my internship. The first four weeks have gone by in a blur. I have created, edited dozens of times, and physically and electronically distributed my NGRREC Adult Outreach Survey. The survey is a basis for me to determine my whole summer project on. By polling the local adult population of the Alton, Illinois, area I am essentially letting the adults choose their own adult outreach event. I have learned how to interact with the local adult population here and have since found that most adults are skeptical about those who distribute a survey. It takes a big smile and kind words to calm skittish adults of their survey anxieties. While my survey was just a page long on paper and took about one minute to complete, many people simply did not want to be bothered to take a survey. Though I understand everyone has different experiences, I wonder why people would not want the opportunity to take a survey. Taking a survey allows one’s voice to be heard and tracks their input for an opportunity to choose what they want to know, buy, have, etc. Surveys are not something to be afraid of. They are something that should be wanted, or at the very least desired. Without a survey, public outreach of programs and local events would take place at a hit or miss standards and not be worthy of consideration. Surveys help environmental anthropologists to know how to best help the local community that they are working with. Just like speaking to someone, surveys help give an overall standpoint of the local people in an area so that one knows how to best work with and help them. 

I am learning that environmental anthropology is a lot harder than it sounds. An environmental anthropologist may be referred to by many names. Some names include “mediator” “planner” and “researcher.” When dealing with an established local population in the United States that already has a modern lifestyle, it is in some ways easier to be able to reach populations who want to listen to environmentalists to help repair the environment. At the same time, I am also dealing with a population that wants to keep their modern lifestyles and not sacrifice driving big trucks and living in large houses to help sustain the environment. In part, I have a willing audience that wants to change the environment’s future for the better but does not want to sacrifice to do so. My project now is how to make change appealing and to notify the local population of why change to more environmentally stable practices would be better for them now and not just the future. To educate adults about their impact on the environment and especially the river, I have decided to host a trivia night to help me achieve my goal. This trivia night will be an indicator of how much people already know about how to protect their environment and will give them some facts that they may apply to their lifestyles. Wish me luck that this trivia night goes well!

 

Archaeologists Uncover Lost Maya City!

For those interested in Maya Archaeology, archaeology, adventures, discoveries, and so much more, check out the latest discovery:

Ancient Maya City Uncovered

Gender Remixed

This blog post is in reference to material that students enrolled in SS 3310 are learning this week.

An English nursery rhyme claims that boys are made out of snails and puppy-dogs’ tails, while girls are composed of sugar and spice (and everything nice).  These ideas are popular in American culture because in the US (and much of the Western world), there are two genders: man and woman.  The cultural ideas and meanings attached to the physical bodies (i.e. sexes) of males and females are referred to as one’s gender.  Men and women are associated with gendered roles that are specific to men and women (as demonstrated in the nursery rhyme).  But these ideas are not common in every culture around the world when it comes to males and females because just as each culture is unique in its values and beliefs, so are the gender ideals associated with each culture.  Today’s post will explore cross-cultural ideas of gender.

At least three countries in the world, Nepal, Australia, and India, legally allow their citizens to identify as a one of three genders: male, female, or a third gender that is considered neither female nor male.  The decision to acknowledge the third gender in Nepal is hailed positively as allowing gendered minorities rights after years of oppression (many discriminations of which-e.g. education, economics, and more-still continue in many public spheres today).  The Australian government has recognized intersexuals (those who cannot be defined biologically as either male or female) for many years, but only recently expanded their definition of intersexuals to those who do not identify their gender as man or woman.  India has a long history of third gendered individuals (known as hijra), so it was always expected among its citizens that the third gendered would be legally identified and recognized.

Traditionally, the Fa'afafine are boys who are raised as girls in Somoan cultures.  These boys are biologically males, but they are chosen to be raised as females in situations where a family has too many boys and the mother/female of the home requires assistance in the domestic sphere.  These boys would dress and act like girls throughout their childhood, and their roles would only alter slightly in adulthood.  They would continue to be “women” in gender, carrying womanly roles within society, but they would marry other women in recognition of their male sex and for reproductive purposes.  Today, Fa’afafine continue to exist, but they are no longer chosen by family members.  Today, the Fa’afafine chose to be Fa’afafine and they are often, but not always, homosexual.  These individuals are acknowledged and recognized in Somoan societies for their good works in the community, which includes raising awareness of GLBT rights and charitable works.

The third gender in the Balkans is known as the “sworn virgins”.  In Balkan cultures/societies, men and women have very strict gender roles, and only men were allowed to deal with financial matters that were the sole support of the family.  In cases where men died, abandoned the family, or were unable to fulfill their roles (e.g. too ill, disabled, etc.), the remaining women of the family were doomed to extreme poverty and eventual death.  The sworn virgin concept allowed women to take on the role of men and therefore provider for the family.  “Sworn virgins” were women who either were chosen or voluntarily elected to take on the role.  These sworn virgins would dress and act as men and would be acknowledged as men by men and women in the community, society, and culture.  In return for taking on this role, these women would swear to be virgins-never being allowed to marry or have sexual relations with either sex.  The number of sworn virgins in the Balkans is declining as the region has modernized, but several sworn virgins still exist and live as men within their communities today.

An alternative gender outside of the male/female binary found among Native American groups of North America is popularly known as the “berdache”, although the term is considered derogatory today and the term "two spirit" is preferred.  This term is actually a French word created European traders that was given to Native American individuals who were identified as transgendered, the third (or fourth) gender, or individuals who were designated as having special status because they held traits of both men and women.  Individuals were identified as being "two spirits" based on their personal preferences toward the opposite gender’s roles or dreams and visions that called them to becoming a "two spirit".  These individuals occupy special statuses within society, including but not limited to religious roles (e.g. shamans or healers).  The "two spirits" were sexually active and would often marry individuals as a means of increasing that individual’s social status and/or prestige in several cultures.  Because of the diversity in Native American cultures that exist in North America, the "two-spirits" concept is a complex one that is not universal among all North American Native American groups, so the aforementioned description is a general one and not all traits apply to all groups.     

These are only a few of the variety of gender categories around the world.  A comprehensive list, with descriptions, can be found at the following link: http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/two-spirits/map.html.  An exploration of all the complexities of genders around the world reaffirms the fact that gender and gender roles are cultural concepts, and that biologically males and females are quite similar.  Males and females can and often do occupy similar roles, although those roles do differ by culture. 

Fatherhood: American Style

It's been a very busy week for me, so I have been remiss in getting an actual post together.  Because of this situation, I am posting a link to another post dedicated to Father's Day and fatherhood as defined here in the US: Fatherhood .  Enjoy everyone!

Dumpster Diving Part 3: What To Do When You Find An Artifact

This post is the final installment of the "Dumpster Dumping" series, which will focus on what to do if a lay person encounters a potential archaeological artifact.  An artifact is any object that was either created or manipulated in some way by a human.  A wide array of items can be included in the category of artifacts-everything from fire cracked rock, a piece of pottery, a manufactured bottle, butchered bone, and more.  The possibilities are quite endless, which sometimes makes it difficult to determine what is and what is not an artifact.  A nonexpert will be unable to make that determination, but one should still follow the steps outlined in this post.

1. Upon finding an artifact or a potential artifact, note your surroundings.  Make note of all important landmarks, such as street signs and names, trees, rock formations, etc.  If you have it available to you, take GPS coordinates.  Many smart phones may have access to this information via installed applications or ones that you need download.  Exact GPS coordinates will be best, but any information regarding the location of the artifact is better than nothing.
2. Take photos of the artifact in situ (in its original place/context).  Take close ups of the artifact as well as views from further away so all the surrounding area can be photographed, as well.
3. Leave the artifact there is the best course of action so that a professional archaeologist can properly excavate the artifact and gain as much information about the artifact as possible.  But many people, particularly in certain cultures, are unwilling to leave the artifact in its place.  In the event that you feel that you must pick up the artifact, please do so carefully and without disturbing the area around the artifact.  You could be destroying potential evidence associated with the artifact or other artifacts and features (man-made and non-movable evidence of human manipulation of the environment).
4. If you have taken the artifact, go to a local archaeologist.  You can find a local archaeologist through a cultural resource management firm or company, museum with a staffed anthropologist or archaeologist (the latter is preferred), or university/college with an anthropology department.  Give the archaeologist the artifact to examine, along with all other information you collected (location and copies of the photos).  The archaeologist will assess the artifact and make a decision about the artifact and its location at that time. 

In the event that you find an artifact that you believe to be bone, you will need to follow steps 1-3 and definitely adhere to leaving the bone artifact alone in situ!  The reason I say this is because a number of times I have had friends, acquaintances, and others approach me with a piece of bone and the following question:

"Is it human?"

Thankfully, nothing that has ever been brought to my attention in this manner has ever been human (to date, I have identified a raccoon skull, cow tooth, and an unidentified mammalian scapula), but in the event that you have happened upon human bone, you may have ventured upon to one of two possibilities: a forensics (and therefore criminal) case or an archaeological case (which falls under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act or similar legislation).  Because of the potential criminal nature of the find, if you believe you have encountered a human bone CALL THE POLICE!  The police are trained in what to do in these types of situations, particularly in the event that the situation is a criminal case.  It is incredibly important in these situations not to disturb the scene anymore than you already have.  If the find has been deemed archaeological, then trained archaeologists will come in, properly excavate the remains of the individual, and follow the local state and federal laws.

Ultimately, the goal is to protect cultural heritage as best as possible.  There are many ways to meet this goal, and ultimately, you can do your part by following the information provided in these posts (parts 1-3).  Archaeology and history are exciting fields for many, and everyone can do their part to be part of it and protecting our past for everyone to enjoy in the future.    

Guest Post: More Than Meets the Eye: Examining My Summer Internship

The following post is one written by my former student, Caroline Robertson, about her summer internship.  Caroline is starting a BA in Anthropology at SIUC this fall, having just completed several credits at LCCC.  Read more to learn about her internship, which delves into the realm of environmental anthropology:

After meeting the president of Lewis and Clark Community College at an awards banquet I was introduced to the idea of applying for a summer internship with the National Great Rivers Research and Education Center. The main focus of NGRREC is the preservation and improvement of the water and its inhabitants of the upper Mississippi river basin. Initially I was skeptical about applying for the internship. My chosen field of study is anthropology, not biology or river and stream studies. My knowledge in this field of study is quite low as I have not taken many classes that deal with biology or ecology. Regardless of my initial skepticism I decided to apply for the internship anyway considering that the president of my college asked me to do so.

Three months after I applied for the internship I received an email that I would in fact receive one of the internships at NGRREC. The title of my internship is “Mississippi River Education Programs: Addressing Adult Audiences.” My main duties for this project is to effectively educate adults about the needs of the ecology of the river. Also it is my job to find the best way to encourage all adults to take care of the river and treat it with respect. This was initially very challenging for me because I do not have any teaching or education backgrounds. Then my professor, Dr. Boston, asked me to write a little blog on environmental anthropology, compounding me to think of my internship in a different approach. In order to succeed this summer, I must consider my internship as an environmental or an ecological anthropologist. I need to be the mediator between the people at NGRREC who already care about the ecology of the river basin and the local citizens who are not aware of the needs of the river. My goal this summer is to assess the ethnoecology of those who live and work around the upper Mississippi river basin and find out how best to encourage local understanding of the area. My tasks ahead are now put into a perspective that makes them achievable.

NGRREC’s main purpose is to involve the local community of the upper Mississippi river basin in the ecology of the river and its tributaries. As stated on NGRREC’s website, “NGRREC employs full-time environmental educators responsible for developing and delivering a variety of comprehensive education and outreach programs that target K-12 students, formal and non-formal educators, and the public” (http://www.ngrrec.org/education). People who live around the Mississippi river have surprisingly little knowledge and awareness of how to take care of the river and treat it with respect. The work of NGRREC has just recently been able to come to prominence in the local community. With the building of NGRREC’s highly sustainable and efficient Confluence Field Station, the organization is now looking to add some new programs to their repertoire and expand NGGREC even more. My job this summer will be to take the work of NGRREC’s researchers and convert their findings to public knowledge, specifically, adult education. My assignment for this summer is to create an event that, if successful, would become an annual educational event to promote NGRREC’s work.