Life, Death, and Rebirth: Xipe Totec

Figure 1: Xipe Totec (Source: World History Encyclopedia)

 

Today’s blog post covers what many modern people may consider strange, if not macabre or horrific, which is the ancient Mesoamerican belief and worship of Xipe Totec, the Flayed God (Figure 1). Xipe Totec is most notably associated with the Aztecs, who had a core cultural value pertaining to blood sacrifices, but this god was important to various Mesoamerican groups, including the Olmec, Maya, Toltecs, Zapotecs, and more.  This blog post will discuss what Xipe Totec represented and why among the Mesoamericans worshipped it.  Given the graphic nature of this blog’s content all readers are encouraged to read with an open mind and to take a culturally relativistic approach, meaning consider the cultural traditions, beliefs, values, and views presented herein from the cultural groups’ perspectives, not your own.

 

Xipe Totec is believed to literally mean “Lord of Flaying”, leading to it being called the Flayed God.  This title represents the depictions and responsibilities of this god.  Xipe Totec was considered the god of birth, death, rebirth, as well as skin and eye diseases.  For the latter, Xipe Totec was called upon to cure individuals of any and all skin and eye diseases they suffered from.  Xipe Totec was also the patron of metallurgists and gemstone workers.  While Xipe Totec’s responsibilities were varied they were all related to its core duties: ensuring the Earth’s renewal.  Xipe Totec was associated with the spring, which brought about new growth of plants and animals that sustained Mesoamericans’ livelihood through food and other necessities.  Xipe Totec was depicted wearing golden armor, capes, and clothing that were ornately decorated, leading to the associated occupational classes that fell under his patronage.  He was also depicted wearing the flayed skin of captives, hence the reference to flaying, or removal of skin.  This, too, was central to Xipe Totec’s purpose.

 

Xipe Totec was largely worshipped in the Postclassic Period (AD 1400-1500).  In the spring the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival was celebrated to ensure a bountiful planting and subsequent harvest of maize, a primary staple of Mesoamerican groups’ diets.  The Tlacaxipeualiztli festival was also meant to call upon Xipe Totec’s blessings through its worship.  Forty days preceding the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival an individual would volunteer to serve as the representation of Xipe Totec, thereby wearing elaborate clothing made up of feathers and gold. At the dawn of the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival this human representation of Xipe Totec would be sacrificed, thereby ensuring his automatic placement in “heaven” or the Mesoamerican equivalent.  This explains why individuals would volunteer to play this role as it was one of the few ways to ensure a happy afterlife.  During the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival prisoners of war would engage in a mock battle wherein they would fight other volunteers who portrayed paramount and important gods.  The prisoners of war would be provided nothing to defend themselves or they would be given worthless weapons, dying in the mock battle against the representatives of the paramount gods. This served as part of the sacrificial ritual of the prisoners of war.  Those who survived these battles would still be put to death by way of having their hearts removed.  All sacrificed prisoners of war would be flayed postmortem, and their skins worn by Xipe Totec priests for the next 20 days.  The act of flaying the sacrificed prisoners of war was meant to symbolize the removal of the maize (corn) kernels from their cobs prior to being plants.  After 20 days the skins would be “planted” or placed in the temple to Xipe Totec, symbolizing the planting of the corn and rebirth after death.

 

Taken together, these actions were representations of the planting, harvesting, and consumption cycles of maize that took place annually among Mesoamerican groups.  They were also symbolic of the cycles of the seasons, wherein spring brought about new life, fall brought about death, and so on so forth.  This is why Xipe Totec was such an important part to the ideological values and beliefs of various Mesoamerican groups, and if one pauses and considers these ideas you may find similar ideas related to life, death, and rebirth in your own worldview.

 

References

Allison, C. (2019). More than Skin Deep: Generative Violence, Faceless Men and the Flayed God. Pittsburgh: The Mid-Atlantic Popular & American Culture Association.

Cartwright, M. (2013, August 3). Xipe Totec. Retrieved from World History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/Xipe_Totec/

Kimbell Art Museum. (2024). Xipe Totec, c. 900–1200: Nahua. Retrieved from Kimbell Art Museum: https://kimbellart.org/collection/ap-197939

Lambert, A. F. (2013). PRECLASSIC MAYA REPRESENTATIONS OF XIPE TOTEC AT KAMINALJUYÚ. Wayeb Notes, 1-9.

Mikulska, K. (2022). THE DEITY AS A MOSAIC: IMAGES OF THE GOD XIPE TOTEC IN DIVINATORY CODICES FROM CENTRAL MESOAMERICA. Ancient Mesoamerica, 432-458.

Zorich, Z. (2019, May/June). Temple of the Flayed Lord. Archaeology Magazine.

 

The Not-So-Holy Origins of the Phrase “Bless You”

 

Comic strip of a lone individual sneezing and receiving a phone call wherein the caller says, "God bless you" immediately after the sneeze (Image Source: https://what-if.xkcd.com/55/)

If you reside in the United States of America you may be familiar with hearing someone say “Bless you” after someone sneezes.  It is so ubiquitous in American culture that people will seeming say this phrase automatically and to those they know and to complete strangers.  Failure to say it or making a different statement (e.g., Gesundheit, which is common among Germans) elicits some sort of informal sanction, such as a dirty look.  Typically one may not consider the how’s or why’s a specific cultural gesture is undertaken, but this blog post is going to delve into the mystery of why native English speakers, particularly Americans, say “Bless you” after someone sneezes, especially when one realizes this behavior is a cultural particularity (cultural tradition, value, belief, norm, etc. that is found in one or very few cultures).

 

First, many cultural groups around the world have a phrase that is (or expected) to be said after one sneezes.  A review of these phrases demonstrates a general trend, which is one of health.  This means that the majority of the phrases imbue good health or keeping one healthy in the messaging/meaning of the phrase.  English speakers, particularly Americans, however, say “Bless you”, which takes a more religious angle.  This showcases the strong cultural values, particularly related to Christianity, among (or ideally among) Americans, but why do Americans take this approach whereas other cultures, including those with similarly strong Christian values, do not?

 

The answer may lie in the origins of this phrase, which are imprecisely known.  It is rumored that ancient Romans were the originators of the phrase “God bless you”.  It was Pope Gregory I who purportedly first said the phrase, which makes sense as God is central to the Catholic faith.  This origin story, however, is both inaccurate and unsubstantiated.  The ancient Romans may have said, “Banish the omen,” after someone sneezed, and if they did, as that, too, is unsubstantiated, it is unclear why.

 

More popular and supported origins of the phrase “bless you” come from the long held belief in the past that the soul was expelled from the body when one sneezed.  It was believed that the soul was made of air or was as light as air, and it resided in the head.  When one sneezed, thereby expelling air through their nose and mouth, the soul, too, was released, albeit unintentionally.  A soulless body was at risk of various perils, including but not limited to illness, disease, demonic possession, and more (all of which were really bad).  The expulsion of the soul from its resident body also left it at risk of being taken by a demon or even Satan himself.  The phrase “Bless you” was immediately said so as to help the sneezing individual avoid any negative consequences of their sneeze.  As time went on and the superstitious nature of Christianity lost its meaning and popularity the notion of the soul being expelled from the body disappeared, but the importance of saying “Bless you” did not.   

 

Works Cited

Dana. "Why Americans say “Bless you!” when they hear someone sneeze." n.d. MIT International Students Office. Electronic. 6 August 2024.

Mikkelson, Barbara. "Why Do We Say 'Bless You!' When Someone Sneezes? ." 17 April 2001. Snopes.com. Electronic. 6 August 2024.

Morgan, Emily. "Goodbye and Bless You!" 16 September 2020. Medium. Electronic. 6 August 2024.

Science Reference Section, Library of Congress. "Everyday Mysteries." 19 November 2019. Library of Congress. Electronic. 6 August 2024.

 

Remarkable Discovery of an Ovarian Teratoma in Ancient Egypt

Figure 1: Ovarian teratoma found at Armana (Source: A. Deblauwe)

 

The study of the dead can yield a wealth of information about people of the past.  While archaeological investigations focus on the material culture (the items created/manipulated and used by humans), bioarchaeological research goes one step further by combining the study of human remains with archaeological evidence (artifacts) to provide a holistic understanding of the human experience in the past.  Today’s blog post addresses how the bioarchaeological approach has provided new evidence concerning ovarian teratomas and ancient Egyptian beliefs.

 

In 2023 Gretchen Dabbs, Melinda King Wetzel, and Anna Stevens published their analysis of an 18 to 21-year-old female who resided at the site of Armana in Egypt in 1345 BC.  The site had been the capital during Pharaoh Akhenaton’s rule, which ushered in various changes throughout Egypt.  This is in part why the site is studied, but what Dabbs, Wetzel, and Stevens ultimately published on was both unrelated and unexpected.  During an excavation of a multichambered tomb, the final resting place for non-elite individuals, Wetzel, an archaeologist, noticed something atypical while carefully excavating the mortuary contexts of the aforementioned female.  She noticed a tooth in the pelvic area, which she initially assumed belonged to a fetus.  When she brought the discovery to Dabbs’ attention a different conclusion began to take shape.  Dabbs, a bioarchaeologist, realized the advanced maturation of the teeth, which were permanent (adult) teeth, ruled out the presence of a fetus. 

 

A more thorough investigation took place, relying on the contextual evidence available to them.  Careful excavation procedures and detailed documentation ruled out the presence of another individual’s skeletal remains being comingled (mixed in) with the deceased female’s remains.  Examination of the teeth and their location within the female’s body, specifically near or at the location of where an ovary would have been present, led the researchers to conclude that these teeth were part of an ovarian osteoma (Figure 1).  Such tumors are masses of hard and soft tissues, including bones, teeth, and sometimes parts of organs.  They are found within the ovaries or testes, and while benign they can cause discomfort, pain, and infertility.  This particular osteoma was about an inch in size.  The evaluation of the grave goods, particularly a ring present on the female’s hand that laid to rest on her hip, suggested this osteoma may have been painful and prevented her from conceiving children.  This conclusion was reached based on the presence of the goddess Bes on the ring.  This Egyptian deity was associated with fertility, and the deceased female may have worn the ring inscribed with Bes to alleviate her pain and encourage pregnancy.

 

While this discovery is remarkable in and of itself it is even more so since this is only one of five such discoveries made thus far.  Three osteomas had been discovered in European contexts and another was found in Peru.  This osteoma predates the previous four, making it the oldest documented osteoma.  It is also the first documented case in Egyptian contexts and the first found on the African continent.  Furthermore, the archaeological evidence provides more information concerning medical and ideological practices among Egyptians in the 14th century BCE.

 

Bibliography

Cassella, Carly. "Scientists Find a Tumor Made of Teeth in The Pelvis of an Ancient Egyptian." 13 November 2023. Science Alert. Electronic. 8 August 2024.

Dabbs, Gretchen R., Anna Stevens and Melinda King Wetzel. "A mature ovarian teratoma from New Kingdom Amarna, Egypt." International Journal of Paleopathology (2023): 99-105. Print.

Jackson, Justin. "Ancient Egyptian burial reveals ovarian teeth in oldest example of teratoma." 9 November 2023. Phys.org. Electronic. 8 August 2024.

Killgrove, Kristina. "Rare tumor with teeth discovered in Egyptian burial from 3,000 years ago." 7 November 2023. Live Science. Electronic. 8 August 2024.

 

Applied Anthropologist Profile: Patricia M. Clay, Ph.D., Anthropologist for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Patricia (Trish) Clay, Ph.D. (Source: NOAA)

 

In an interview with her employer, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Patricia (Trish) Clay said, “One of the things I love about being an anthropologist is that our topic of study is humans. We can study anything people do or think or believe. There are always new and interesting topics to study because people are endlessly inventive.” This sums up not just the purpose of anthropological study but what she was hired to do within the NOAA.  She was the first anthropologist employed by the NOAA, who sought out such expertise to delve deeper into the sociocultural aspects of fisheries and fishing communities.  She has done that and more in her role as Anthropologist for the NOAA’s Social Science Division, and this blog post will address the entirety of her career, from undergraduate student to present day.

 

Clay grew up globetrotting around the world due to her parents’ line of work.  This enabled her to be exposed to and an active participant among various cultural groups.  This would seem like fertile ground to inspire her to study anthropology, but that was not the case.  She enrolled at the University of Notre Dame with aspirations of becoming a social engineer, but she ultimately majored in anthropology after she enrolled in an introductory anthropology course.  Falling in love with the subject matter and being adept in three languages she earned her degrees in Anthropology and Modern Languages in 1981. 

 

She wanted to pursue her graduate studies in linguistics, but she took a gap year to work alongside her father in Venezuela.  It was here where she took a position working for the Venezuelan government.  She was responsible for completing an ethnographic study on local farming and local fishing communities.  This ignited a new passion within her, and she decided to pursue her doctoral research on fishing communities instead of linguistic anthropology. 

 

Clay joined the doctoral program at Indiana University, pursuing research in Venezuela again.  Her doctoral research focused on two very similar fishing communities that received government funding to improve fish production and the living conditions of the local fishermen.  Despite the similarities in the communities and funding opportunities only one program was successful.  Clay realized that it was not economic or environmental factors that affected the failure or success of the program.  It was actually social factors that predicted the program success.  The successful program had a manager who had a great deal of social capital, which increased buy in and cooperation from both employees (fishermen) and the community at large.  The other program did not have this, and it ultimately failed as a result.

 

As is expected of any graduate student Clay was presenting and publishing her research widely.  While attending at conference she met a sociologist employed at the NOAA.  During their conversation he informed her that his branch was looking to hire an anthropologist, the first ever for the organization, and she should apply.  She did and successfully landed the position the same year she defended her dissertation (in 1993).  As excited as she was to take on the responsibilities of this new role she ran into some challenges.  First, many of her colleagues, particularly the hard scientists, saw no value in her anthropological expertise, so they provided little support.  Second, because she was the first anthropologist employed at the NOAA her job responsibilities were undefined.  Rather than shrink away she took advantage of her situation and showed everyone what value she could bring to the position.  She worked hard and demonstrated the utility of anthropological research in better understanding the issues the hard scientists were investigating, and she used the lack of definition of her position to explore research and problems that she identified as she explored the NOAA’s projects. 

 

This caused her to be asked to define similar positions at other NOAA branches, which she has done over the decades she has worked for the agency.  She also was tapped to help various state and federal agencies write legislation to improve fishing regulations.  Her individual work has also been instrumental in humanizing the problems faced by fisheries and fishers.  She has conducted oral histories on fishermen, completed sociocultural studies on marine mammals and their interactions with fishermen and their vessels, and identified both qualitative and quantitative indicators for assessing the health of fishing communities.  She has served on numerous boards and organizations, and she was recently awarded the Society of Applied Anthropology’s Bronislaw Malinowski Award. 

 

Ultimately, Clay’s work demonstrates the need for anthropologists in any area where humans are involved, which means that any organization, business, or agency can benefit from using anthropological knowledge and expertise.  Anthropologists help understand and assess the human aspects of any problem that may exist or help identify the issues that affect the humans that are impacted.  She most certainly has made a positive impact not only at the NOAA but for fishermen and fisheries both in the US and across the globe, which also means that she has helped all people directly and indirectly impacted by their work.

 

Works Cited

Clay, Patricia. "Biography: Patricia Clay." n.d. Danny Yee. Electronic. 24 May 2024.

NOAA Fisheries. " Patricia M. Clay, Ph.D.: Anthropologist." n.d. NOAA Fisheries. Electronic. 24 May 2024.

Society for Applied Anthropology. "2024 Bronislaw Malinowski Award." 2024. Society for Applied Anthropology. Electronic. 24 May 2024.

Soulen, Heather. "Women's History Month: Talking with Patricia Clay." 18 March 2020. NOAA Fisheries. Electronic. 24 May 2024.

 

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