Spotlight on Students: A Discussion on Cultural Appropriation

This post highlights the work required of my SA 202: Introduction to Anthropology students. Students were given the opportunity to research and identify an example of cultural appropriation and explain how the cultural elements could be appreciated instead. Several students were given the opportunity to have their exemplary work featured on the blog, and the students who provided permission have their work featured here in this and the following blog posts. Please show your appreciation for their work through the comments.

Original Instagram post from Adele showing her Bantu knots and Jamaican flag bikini.

By: Jaaden Campbell

An example of cultural appropriation is when Adele posted an Instagram photo wearing Bantu knots and a Jamaican flag bikini for the Notting Hill Carnival. Adele believed that not dressing up in Jamaican cultural attire for the event made it difficult to understand why you were going to the event. This is an example of cultural appropriation because, in the beginning, Adele didn’t understand that being a white woman in Jamaican attire and wearing Bantu knots was wrong; later on, she realized the significance of the Jamaican flag and why she shouldn’t be wearing it due to the fact that the flag represents the independence and identity of the country, she also learned through the criticism from fans that Bantu knots were to protect Afro hair as a result of this her hair was ruined.

Adele was able to appreciate Jamaican and African American hairstyles by becoming informed on how to appreciate the culture without appropriating it. She learned that just being there and not wearing clothes or hairstyles for the culture was showing her appreciation. Adele explained in an interview on the subject by explaining why she never took the post down, explaining that she kept the post up to show she was not hiding her mistake; instead, she embraced her wrong doings by not hiding it. Adele helped by educating herself on the systemic challenges Black people face regularly. To further show her understanding, she spoke about the 2017 Grammys and how Beyoncé’s Lemonade album should have won the award due to the impact it had on the culture of women and African Americans.

Citation: 

Mulenga, Natasha. “Adele on Cultural Appropriation: ‘I Didn’t Read the F**king Room.’” Teen Vogue, Teen Vogue, 8 Oct. 2021, www.teenvogue.com/story/adele-addressed-cultural-appropriation-backlash-bantu-knots-vogue-covers.

 

Scene from the episode of Superstore titled, "Shots and Salsa."

 

By: Cierra Hein

While going over Chapter 2 in anthropology we have learned the words cultural appreciation and cultural appropriation. There is a difference between these two words, and it is wise to understand the difference between the two. Cultural appreciation is the act of learning, understanding, and respecting another culture in a way that is not for personal gain. Cultural appropriation is “the unilateral decision of one social group to take control over the symbols, practices or objects of another” (Welsch et al. 45). An example of cultural appropriation is someone forcing or imitating an accent. A situation where this happened was in a show called Superstore, in season one, episode three, the employees were told to sell some salsa for a charity event. The charity even was for kids in an orphanage in Mexico. While trying to sell the salsa the employees were putting on a Latino accent to make the sale more “authentic” (“Shots and Salsa” 14:34). This is cultural appropriation because imitating or adopting one’s accent without respect or understanding the culture is disrespectful and can lead to stereotyping. This can lead to negative and simplistic views on this culture. A good example of cultural appreciation without appropriating would have been if the employees of Superstore had learned and shared facts of the Latino culture and the historical process of making salsa. Instead of the employees just faking a Latino accent they could have put more interest in the charity event and what it was for. Employees could have been more enthusiastic about the sale without adopting an accent if they had known it was for a charity.

 

Works Cited

“Cultural Appreciation vs. Appropriation.” Wisconsin 4-H, 4h.extension.wisc.edu/opportunities/projects/expressive-arts/cultural-appreciation/#:~:text=Cultural%20Appreciation%5B1%5D&text=If%20your%20goal%20is%20to,from%20someone%20in%20that%20culture.

“Shots sand Salsa.” Superstore: Season 1, Episode 3, written by Justin Spitzer, Jack Kukoda, and Jeny Batten, directed by Ruben Fleischer, Spitzer Holding Company, Universal Television, and The District, 2015

Welsch, Robert L. et al. Anthropology: Asking Questions about Human Origins, Diversity, and Culture. 1^st ed., Oxford University Press, 2016

 

Murder They Wrote: Chimpanzees Observed Killing Gorillas

Chimpanzees eating a small monkey they hunted (Source: © Liran Samuni, Tai Chimpanzee Project)

 

Thanks to the work of Jane Goodall and various other primatologists there is a great deal of information known about chimpanzees.  This research has demonstrated that chimpanzees are not just genetically related to humans but also display various behavioral traits that are commonly found among humans.  One of those is murder.  Acts of murder among chimpanzees have been critically evaluated, but it is clear that chimpanzees will and do murder there own for various reasons, including but not limited to infanticide, removal of tyrannical leadership, and protection of the group from outsiders.  Murder among chimpanzees is typically observed between non-related males (as both aggressors and victims).  Now there is a new dimension to chimpanzee behaviors, particularly when it comes to murder: chimpanzees murdering gorillas.

 

In February and December 2019 primatologists working in Loango National Park (in Gabon) observed two separate incidences wherein a large group (of almost 30) chimpanzees encountered and attacked a smaller group of gorillas.  These incidents occurred as a mixed group of young and old male and female chimpanzees were patrolling their territories.  The chimpanzees happened upon a group of gorillas wherein there was only one male, several females, and at least one infant.  Both times the attacks were initiated by the chimpanzees.

 

In the first attack the lone gorilla infant was the sole casualty of the skirmish. An adult chimpanzee managed to separate the infant from its mother and then hit it several times, leading to its death.  In the first attack the adult silverback (male gorilla) and several female gorillas rigorously defended their troop, leading to the injury of three chimpanzees.  In the second attack there was less defense occurring among the gorillas, who opted to run rather than stand their ground.  In the melee one of the two infants was separated from its mother (the circumstances of which are unclear since this occurred in the tree top canopy).  The infant was observed deceased, and it was ultimately eaten by at least two chimpanzees.

 

The primatologists were baffled by what they observed, particularly as chimpanzees and gorillas had never been seen involved in this level of conflict previously.  They had reportedly coexisted in this and other regions across Africa for decades without any serious conflict.  Upon reflection of the incidents the scholars concluded that the attacks may have been motivated by a reduction of food resources.  The chimpanzees and gorillas do have some overlap in food resources during specific times of the year, which happened to be when the attacks occurred.  Given the consumption of the second infant and the overlap in food resources it is suspected that the chimpanzees attacked because they were desperate for food. 

 

These attacks may have been random incidents, or they may be the beginning of a pattern that will continue.  If the chimpanzees attacked due to a fear of limited food resources the attacks could continue, particularly as human incursions on native non-human primate lands are the root cause of the lack of food resources for these creatures.  This underscores the reasons for why humans are a primary cause in nonhuman primate endangerment, even when there is no intention to do so.

 

References

Anderson, James R. 2018. Chimpanzees and death. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 373: 20170257.

Luntz, S. (2021, July 21). Chimpanzees Seen Killing Gorillas For The First Time. Retrieved from IFLScience: https://www.iflscience.com/chimpanzees-seen-killing-gorillas-for-the-first-time-60411

Southern, L.M., Deschner, T. & Pika, S. Lethal coalitionary attacks of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) on gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in the wild. Sci Rep 11, 14673 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-93829-x

 

Defining a Monster: The Value of the Werewolf

Werewolf (Image Source: Canva.com)

This blog has covered a variety of monster tales in the past.  Every culture has some sort of definition of what it means to be a monster, along with specific types of monsters.  There are numerous reasons for why monsters in any given culture exist, which have been covered throughout previous blog posts. Ultimately, though, the most common theme revolves around addressing various aspects of what monsters mean within any given society and how they reflect morals, values, and beliefs within the cultural group.  Today’s blog post will continue within this vein of inquiry to discuss the meanings and values of werewolves as they concern European and modern Western cultural groups.

 

Werewolves are defined in multiple ways, although a review of these different definitions will turn up some commonalities.  Ultimately, a werewolf is a human being of any gender or age who either voluntarily or involuntarily changes into a wolf.  This change can be a full physical, psychological, or spiritual change, which can be induced through magic or curse, demonic possession, animal bite, the commission of an immoral or sinful act, or unfortunate genetic/birth circumstances.  Regardless of the type of change the human undergoes it is agreed upon that the individual takes on the characteristics of the wolf, which include but are not limited to ferocity, brute strength, and exceptional speed.

 

It is through the analysis of the divergent definitions of werewolf that social values, beliefs, and ideas about this monster come through.  Among very early European populations (e.g., Bronze Age populations, followed by the ancient Greeks and Vikings) the concerns about werewolves were based in fears of wolves.  Individuals having the ability to physically or psychologically change into werewolves was both awe inspiring and terrifying, particularly as there was such great fear in actual wolves.  These creatures were known for destroying livestock, thereby threatening the livelihoods of humans.  Human-wolf beings were feared and revered, particularly among the Vikings who may have believed that their fiercest warriors were able to channel the spirit of wolves (and bears) to be triumphant in battle.

 

Throughout early European history werewolves were associated with deviant individuals, meaning anyone who committed devious acts or were in some way viewed as deviant (e.g., reclusive individuals, individuals who were sick and/or deformed, those who did not follow the rules of society) was labeled a werewolf and treated accordingly.  This could and did result in various types of formal sanctions, the most common of which was execution.  This was the result of the close association of the werewolf with Satan, and as the soul was ultimately damned the only relief for the individual (and society) was to put the werewolf to death.

 

In the 1600 and 1700s there was a change in the werewolf narrative, due in large part to the rise of science and psychology.  There was a shift from associating the werewolf with deviance and the Devil to instead concluding that an individual who took on “werewolf” like traits was sick. The accused were institutionalized rather than executed.  This period of time also coincides with a drastic reduction in wolf populations throughout Europe, the result of high bounties being imposed by various individuals in power throughout Europe.   By the 1700s wolves were largely eradicated across Europe.  Once the real wolves were gone and no longer a serious threat there were fewer stories and fears of werewolves. 

 

Today, views regarding werewolves are not that different from the past.  They are still largely viewed as scary and uncontrollable monsters that have insatiable hunger.  There are, however, some additional dimensions to modern werewolf tales.  First, the monster is redeemable in some cases, matching modern Western cultural views that no one person is completely bad and that they can change, be it by choice or with appropriate social and environmental circumstances. 

 

There is also the association of the werewolf with the adolescence and puberty.  The ideas of bodily transformations tied to puberty, sexuality, or menses/female periods and the attitudes that go with “that time of the month”.  Western beliefs pertaining to puberty causing drastic and unexpected changes in mood and the documented physical transformation that occurs during puberty match up with the ideas of psychological and physical changes that occur when a human becomes a werewolf.

 

We also begin to see the sociological aspects of werewolf tales.  There are those that focus on individuals who feel like outsiders and their conflicts with the mainstream, which links back to notions of reclusive individuals being deviant throughout previously discussed European history.  In this same vein there is the fear of others/xenophobia which modern werewolf tales allow us to explore.  Ecologically there is the werewolf as an analogy of nature and either protecting or returning to nature. 

 

The most consistent theme that has and continues to persist among all werewolf stories is the psychological aspects of the werewolf: getting a glimpse into the internal conflicts we all feel, specifically how we must fight to give into our deepest, darkest desires.  Werewolves kill indiscriminately.  They are animals.  We can see what happens when those dark desires are indulged unchecked, and why we need to not overindulge in them.  These tales provide a safe space for humans to explore the deviance without actually participating in it, while also simultaneously assessing the costs of indulging in those deviant desires and why one ultimately should not.  This is why the werewolf myths will continue to exist because they allow us to explore the darker sides and successfully reinforce why we should be go that way.  Because even though the werewolf myths and imagery may change, it ultimately stays the same in that it is an untamable beast, and ultimately the opposite of an untamable beast is to be human.

 

References

Beresford, M. (2013). The White Devil: The Werewolf in European Culture. London: Reaktion Books Ltd.

Briggs, R. (2002). Shapeshifting, Apparitions, and Fantasy in Witchcraft Trials. In K. A. Edwards, Werewolves, Witches, and Wandering Spirits: Traditional Belief in Folklore in Early Modern Europe (pp. 1-24). Kirksville: Truman State University Press.

Cooper, B. (1977). The Werewolf in Legend, Face, and Art. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Cybulski, A. (2004). Introduction. In A. Cybulski, Werewolves: Fact or Fiction (pp. 7-17). Farmington Hills: Greenhaven Press.

Davidson, S. (1976). The anthropological implications of the vampire and werewolf in Europe and the affiliations of such beliefs with related phenomena worldwide (Master's thesis).

Douglas, A. (1992). Beast Within: A History of the Werewolf. New York: Avon Books.

Edwards, K. A. (2002). Introduction: Expanding the Analysis of Traditional Belief. In K. A. Edwards, Werewolves, Witches, and Wandering Spirits: Traditional Belief and Folklore in Early Modern Europe (pp. vii-xxii). Kirksville: Truman State University.

Farson, D. (1975). The Supernatural: Vampires, Zombies, and Monster Men. London: Aldus Books Limited.

Jacques-Lefevre, N. (2002). Such an Impure, Cruel, and Savage Beast: Images of hte Werewolf in Demonological Works. In K. Edwards, Werewolves, Witches, and Wandering Spirits: Traditional Belief and Folklore in Early Modern Europe (pp. 181-197). Kirksville: Truman State University Press.

O'Donnell, E. (1912). Werewolves. London: Methun and Co., Ltd.

Ogdin, D. (2021, March 7). Four Things You (Probably) Don't Know about the Werewolves of the Ancient World. Retrieved from Columbian College of Arts & Sciences, The George Washington University: http://hnn.us/article/179430

Summers, M. (1933). The Werewolf in Lore and Legend. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Tubner, and Co, Ltd.

 

Life, Death, and Rebirth: Xipe Totec

Figure 1: Xipe Totec (Source: World History Encyclopedia)

 

Today’s blog post covers what many modern people may consider strange, if not macabre or horrific, which is the ancient Mesoamerican belief and worship of Xipe Totec, the Flayed God (Figure 1). Xipe Totec is most notably associated with the Aztecs, who had a core cultural value pertaining to blood sacrifices, but this god was important to various Mesoamerican groups, including the Olmec, Maya, Toltecs, Zapotecs, and more.  This blog post will discuss what Xipe Totec represented and why among the Mesoamericans worshipped it.  Given the graphic nature of this blog’s content all readers are encouraged to read with an open mind and to take a culturally relativistic approach, meaning consider the cultural traditions, beliefs, values, and views presented herein from the cultural groups’ perspectives, not your own.

 

Xipe Totec is believed to literally mean “Lord of Flaying”, leading to it being called the Flayed God.  This title represents the depictions and responsibilities of this god.  Xipe Totec was considered the god of birth, death, rebirth, as well as skin and eye diseases.  For the latter, Xipe Totec was called upon to cure individuals of any and all skin and eye diseases they suffered from.  Xipe Totec was also the patron of metallurgists and gemstone workers.  While Xipe Totec’s responsibilities were varied they were all related to its core duties: ensuring the Earth’s renewal.  Xipe Totec was associated with the spring, which brought about new growth of plants and animals that sustained Mesoamericans’ livelihood through food and other necessities.  Xipe Totec was depicted wearing golden armor, capes, and clothing that were ornately decorated, leading to the associated occupational classes that fell under his patronage.  He was also depicted wearing the flayed skin of captives, hence the reference to flaying, or removal of skin.  This, too, was central to Xipe Totec’s purpose.

 

Xipe Totec was largely worshipped in the Postclassic Period (AD 1400-1500).  In the spring the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival was celebrated to ensure a bountiful planting and subsequent harvest of maize, a primary staple of Mesoamerican groups’ diets.  The Tlacaxipeualiztli festival was also meant to call upon Xipe Totec’s blessings through its worship.  Forty days preceding the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival an individual would volunteer to serve as the representation of Xipe Totec, thereby wearing elaborate clothing made up of feathers and gold. At the dawn of the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival this human representation of Xipe Totec would be sacrificed, thereby ensuring his automatic placement in “heaven” or the Mesoamerican equivalent.  This explains why individuals would volunteer to play this role as it was one of the few ways to ensure a happy afterlife.  During the Tlacaxipeualiztli festival prisoners of war would engage in a mock battle wherein they would fight other volunteers who portrayed paramount and important gods.  The prisoners of war would be provided nothing to defend themselves or they would be given worthless weapons, dying in the mock battle against the representatives of the paramount gods. This served as part of the sacrificial ritual of the prisoners of war.  Those who survived these battles would still be put to death by way of having their hearts removed.  All sacrificed prisoners of war would be flayed postmortem, and their skins worn by Xipe Totec priests for the next 20 days.  The act of flaying the sacrificed prisoners of war was meant to symbolize the removal of the maize (corn) kernels from their cobs prior to being plants.  After 20 days the skins would be “planted” or placed in the temple to Xipe Totec, symbolizing the planting of the corn and rebirth after death.

 

Taken together, these actions were representations of the planting, harvesting, and consumption cycles of maize that took place annually among Mesoamerican groups.  They were also symbolic of the cycles of the seasons, wherein spring brought about new life, fall brought about death, and so on so forth.  This is why Xipe Totec was such an important part to the ideological values and beliefs of various Mesoamerican groups, and if one pauses and considers these ideas you may find similar ideas related to life, death, and rebirth in your own worldview.

 

References

Allison, C. (2019). More than Skin Deep: Generative Violence, Faceless Men and the Flayed God. Pittsburgh: The Mid-Atlantic Popular & American Culture Association.

Cartwright, M. (2013, August 3). Xipe Totec. Retrieved from World History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/Xipe_Totec/

Kimbell Art Museum. (2024). Xipe Totec, c. 900–1200: Nahua. Retrieved from Kimbell Art Museum: https://kimbellart.org/collection/ap-197939

Lambert, A. F. (2013). PRECLASSIC MAYA REPRESENTATIONS OF XIPE TOTEC AT KAMINALJUYÚ. Wayeb Notes, 1-9.

Mikulska, K. (2022). THE DEITY AS A MOSAIC: IMAGES OF THE GOD XIPE TOTEC IN DIVINATORY CODICES FROM CENTRAL MESOAMERICA. Ancient Mesoamerica, 432-458.

Zorich, Z. (2019, May/June). Temple of the Flayed Lord. Archaeology Magazine.