Queer Anthropology: A (Very!) Brief Introduction

Image Source: Queer Youth Initiative Center of Greater Cleveland

 

Before I regale you with the information about what queer anthropology is I do want to start with a very important disclaimer: the contents of this blog post are not only incredibly brief but also not comprehensively reflective of the intricacies of this field of anthropological study.  This is in part due to the ever-evolving nature of this discipline, but also due to the complexities of study and approaches within it.  Any inaccuracies in representing this field are wholly the fault of the author, and I expect and welcome constructive critique to improve this post.

 

Queer anthropology is the study of variations of gender and sexuality that go against the Western cultural norms, both within and outside of Western cultures.  Queer anthropology also recognizes the sociocultural influences on gender and sexuality, including but not limited to roles, expectations, and categories, as well as the power and impact these plays in what is considered acceptable versus unacceptable and in which specific contexts. 

 

This area of study emerged during the 20^th century as a means of disputing early anthropological discourse that was disrespectful and ethnocentric, as well as supported and promoted Western and Judeo-Christian ideals concerning gender categories (i.e. the binary male and female) and sexuality preferences (i.e. heterosexuality).  It was a reaction among anthropologists seeking to understand how and why other cultural groups held different gender ideals and sexuality categories that ran counter to the Western norms.  Ultimately the field evolved from previous anthropological inquiries in gender and sexuality studies since the inception of the discipline of anthropology.  Early anthropological inquiries were hyperfocused on gender and sexuality, as seen in the work of Bronislaw Malinoswki, Evans Pritchard, Margaret Mead, and many more.  While some early scholars attempted to take a culturally relativistic approach to the subject matter there remained a tension in comparing other cultural norms to those of the Western societies, often characterizing those that ran counter as primitive or deviant. 

 

Over several decades the study of gender and sexuality evolved, and with it the field of study was eventually established.  It went through various iterations, including the anthropology of homosexuality and gay and lesbian anthropology, before settling into what it is known as today: queer anthropology.  The term queer is used because it is the most inclusive of gender and sexuality diversity, as well as reflects the study of power and marginalization that are often a focus among scholars.  The field is also changing and adapting as a result of the incorporation of new knowledge but also the changing cultural dynamics of societies worldwide.  Therefore, what queer anthropology represents at one point of time will most likely not be what it is at a later point.  Ultimately, the goals of this field of study are to better understand and accept cultural diversity through the lens of gender and sexuality.

 

Bibliography

Howe, Cymene. "Queer Anthropology." International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd Edition. Elselvier, 2015. 1-7. Electronic.

Manalansan IV, Martin F. "Queer Anthropology: An Introduction." Cultural Anthropology (2016): 595-597. Electronic.

Weiss, Margot. AnthroBites: Queer Anthropology Jara M. Carrington. 15 October 2018. Podcast.

Wilson, Ara. "Queer Anthropology." 31 July 2019. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Electronic. 26 May 2021.

 

Mississippian Cultures of North America

 

Figure 1: Geographic territory of Mississippian cultures

 

Between A.D. 1000 and 1700 several different cultural groups that shared common characteristics, including material culture, religion, and sociopolitical organization, flourished across the North American landscape in what is known today as the American Midwest and Southeastern United States (Figure 1).  Collectively known as the Mississippians these cultural groups were regionally distinct despite their commonalities.  While early scholars refused to believe the accomplishments of these people were credited to the ancestors of modern American Indians more recent archaeological inquiries have rectified and refuted those prejudicial ideas.  Today’s blog post will provide an overview of Mississippian cultural characteristics.

 

Mississippian cultures characterized as sedentary groups of people who practiced large scale agriculture, existed within chiefdom societies, and developed large scale monuments, specifically earthen mounds.  Mound building was actually a hold over from the preceding cultural period, the Woodland Period, but the Mississippian Period mounds were different in various ways.  Whereas Woodland Period mounds were largely created for mortuary purposes Mississippian mounds were much larger and served ritual and/or residential purposes, specifically providing elevated housing for chiefs or social elites.  They would reside atop the mounds in wooden, mud plastered houses, using their raised residences to mimic their elevated status among the people.  While Mississippian Period mounds are found throughout the American Midwest and Southeast the largest mounds are found at the site of Cahokia.

 

The Mississippians required a great deal of human labor and effort to construct their monumental earthworks, which required large populations and political leadership.  Both were sustained through large scale agricultural exploits.  Mississippians were adept at maize cultivation, along with beans and squash (often referred to as the “Three Sisters”).  These cultigens provided the primary means of subsistence for Mississippian groups, who also supplemented their diets with meat collected through hunting and fishing activities.

 

Mississippian groups were organized socio-politically into chiefdoms, which dotted the landscapes and provided regional variation among groups.  The chiefs would lead their people in not only the creation of the mounds and the agricultural duties but also in craft specialization.  The Mississippian people had robust crafts, including diagnostic shell tempered ceramics, copper metallurgy, and shell artifacts.  Many of these depict the complex religious traditions of the Mississippian people, including the Long Nosed God, a common motif among various Mississippian groups.

 

The Mississippian cultural groups began to decline around A.D. 1500, which coincides with the arrival of Europeans to the New World.  While diseases and conflict between American Indians and Europeans disrupted many Mississippian lifeways they continued to construct earthen mounds and practice their traditions.  This has been most recently demonstrated by archaeological evidence from the Dyar Mound site in Georgia, although other sites demonstrate similar phenomena.  This just shows the reliance of these people, who eventually abandoned the Mississippian cultural patterns but continued on and still exist among their descendant populations today.

 

Bibliography

Baires, S. E. (2018, February 23). White Settlers Buried the Truth About the Midwest’s Mysterious Mound Cities. Retrieved from Smithsonian Magazine: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/white-settlers-buried-truth-about-midwests-mysterious-mound-cities-180968246/

Emerson, T. E. (1991). The Apple River Mississippian Culture of Northwestern Illinois. In T. E. Emerson, Cahokia and the hinterlands: middle Mississippian cultures of the Midwest. (pp. 164-182). University of Illinois Press.

Mehta, J. (2020). Mississippian Culture and CahokianIdentities as Considered ThroughHousehold Archaeology at Carson, a Monumental Center in North Mississippi. Journal of Archaeological Method & Theory, 27, 28-53.

National Park Service. (No Date). The Mound Builders. Retrieved from Indian Mounds of Missippii: https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/builders.htm

Powell, E. A. (2021, January/February). Enduring Rites of the Mound Builders. Retrieved from Archaeology Magazine: https://www.archaeology.org/issues/407-features/top10/9271-georgia-dyar-mound?fbclid=IwAR0shXoUG3zXP5lUb3Y-PxM0LQ1-6wJR9i0KR8tJXXN1J9KiSo_eEp7dD1g

Unknown. (n.d.). Mississippi Mound Builders, Ancient Indian Civilizations. Retrieved from AAANativeArts.com: https://www.aaanativearts.com/ancient-indians/mississippi-mound-builders.htm

 

Endangered Languages Profile: Louisiana Creole

This blog has covered a number of endangered languages since its inception.  Most of these languages have been spoken in other parts of the world, but endangered languages very much exist in the United States.  The subject matter of this post is on one such endangered language: Louisiana Creole.

 

Louisiana Creole developed over three centuries through contacts among West African slaves, French speaking plantation owners in colonial Louisiana, as well as Spanish speakers and American Indians.  Louisiana Creole borrows much of its vocabulary from French but its grammar from West African languages.  It developed out of a need for enslaved Blacks and white Franco-phones to communicate, starting first as a pidgin and later as a true creole language as it was passed down through the generations. 

 

It is historically known as the language of enslaved Blacks, but it was widely spoken among free Blacks.  Unfortunately, the social climates both in the past and today discourage the use of Louisiana Creole.  It has and continues to be stigmatized in part from its history and association with slavery and Black populations.  During the French and later the American occupation of the region Louisiana Creole was labeled a dirty version of French, making it an informal and unfavorable language, and today this language continues to be stigmatized as a language of the poor and uneducated. 

 

As result this language is considered critically endangered as new generations are not learning the language and it is not widely spoken daily.  It continues to live on in certain cultural traditions, such as the Zydeco music tradition.  While language revitalization and preservation efforts are ongoing throughout Louisiana these have focused on European language dominated creoles, thereby neglecting Louisiana Creole.  Individual efforts to preserve this language are ongoing, so there is still hope in preserving this language.

 

Bibliography

Shahyd, K. (2017, December 23). Black Languages Matter: Louisiana Creole is Critically Endangered . Retrieved from LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/black-languages-matter-louisiana-creole-critically-khalil-shahyd/

Unknown. (2019, May 19). Black Creoles of Louisiana - Orientation . Retrieved from Every Culture: https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Black-Creoles-of-Louisiana-Orientation.html

Webmaster. (n.d.). The Origins of Louisiana Creole. Retrieved from French Creoles: http://www.frenchcreoles.com/Language/originsoflouisianacreole/originsoflouisianacreole.htm