Saturday, February 21, 2015

Monkeying Around: The Linguistic Studies of Primates



Primates are closely related to human beings and provide us great insights into what life would have been like for our hominid (human) ancestors, specifically species in the Australopithecus and Homo genera.  As such primate studies are primarily in the realm of physical anthropology, but today’s blog post will focus on primate studies not from a physical anthropological perspective but from a linguistic anthropological one.  Linguistic anthropologists have dabbled in primate studies in order to gain a better understanding of how language may have developed among our early hominid ancestors and from there have learned about what specifically makes our human language and means of communication so unique from other forms of communication among various animal species, specifically our primate cousins.  This blog post will discuss some of those studies and the information gleaned from them.

Studies of primates have demonstrated that primates can indeed communicate, although not in the same capacities as we, humans, can and do.  Primates communicate in a system of call systems, which are a series of sounds that vary in duration and intensity and are associated with specific environmental stimuli.  These sounds serve the purpose of primates by informing them of potential resources and dangers that individuals or groups may encounter in their environments, but these sounds are also incredibly inflexible as they are limited in type and use.  This means that if a primate encounters two different environmental stimuli simultaneously the primate can only express one response, not two.  This may occur when a primate encounters food and a predator at the same time.  In situation the primate can only signal one of two sounds: one for food or one for predator/danger but not both.  Also, this inflexibility in sounds means that the same sound may be used for completely different situations even if a new response is warranted.  For example, a primate may react to encountering a new situation (e.g. a new food source) the same way as it would to a predator by utilizing the fear/danger response.   

It is believed that our hominid ancestors utilized a similar form of communication, but as their brains evolved and developed they eventually began to manipulate the sounds they could produce and associated them with specific meanings, thoughts, and abstract ideas.  This is why we, as humans, can speak and communicate, whereas other animals cannot.  We also have the capacity to learn what these sounds mean and their associations, which is another reason why we have language and other animals are not considered to possess language.

Figure 1: Washoe & Beatrice Gardner

But primate studies have provided linguistic scholars further insights human and primate communication.  Experiments demonstrate that primates, specifically apes (i.e. chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos) can learn to use language, although they cannot speak.  They can learn and use sign language when taught by a human handler.  The first primate to do this was a chimpanzee named Washoe (Figure 1).  She was taught sign language by R. Allen and Beatrice Gardner, who were stationed at the University of Nevada-Reno.  Washoe learned over 100 signs representing several English words and within a year was able to communicate with short, basic sentences.  Studies of Washoe were followed up by a study on another chimpanzee named Lucy (Figure 2).  Primatologist Roger Fouts taught Lucy a series of signs, and she demonstrated similar language learning capabilities as Washoe.  She, however, took her language skills a bit further as she demonstrated the ability to teach language, swear, and lie, but it was Lucy’s ability to teach language that provided scholars insights into the cultural transmission of language.  This means that language is learned, which has since been identified as a key feature of language.
 
Figure 2: Lucy & Roger Fouts (Image Source: Allposters.com)

While work with chimpanzees was pioneering the work with gorillas provided more insights into language and language acquisition.  Penny Patterson worked with a gorilla named Koko (Figure 3), and Koko demonstrated a greater capacity to learn.  Koko learned far more signs than her chimpanzee predecessors and had a greater ability to compose thoughts.  She even demonstrated the ability to create new words, which is identified as productivity.  She connected specific signs and words to describe objects that she had seen but didn’t have a sign for.  She also demonstrated displacement, which means that she would discuss matters that were not present or were in the past.  This occurred when Koko apologized to Penny, her handler, for biting her in the previous days.  

Figure 3: Koko & Pet Kitten
There is at least one case of a Bonobo learning to communicate with humans, too.  Kanzi (Figure 4) is one such Bonobo housed at the Language Research Center at Georgia State University.  He learned and mastered communication via a keyboard with symbols, referred to as a lexigram, and he responds to specific human words by typing the symbol on the keyboard.  He, like the other primates, has demonstrated an ability to communicate with humans through the use of the keyboard, but he also can communicate through responding to commands given to him by his human handlers.  

Figure 4: Kanzi & Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
These primate studies show that primates have the ability to learn and use language, but this is only after they have learned means of communication from humans.  There remains no evidence of independent invention of language among primates-be they in captivity or in the wild.  As such there are critics of these studies and primates’ ability to learn language, but it is important to note that none of these critics have actually worked with primates in these capacities.  I do, however, want to leave you with several videos so you can judge for yourself whether or not these studies are legitimate or not in case you, too, have your doubts:


References:
Gezon, L., & Kottak, C. (2014).  Cultural Anthropology McGraw-Hill  



33 comments:

Anonymous said...

I really hadn't heard of Washoe, or knew that UNR contributed to things in this capacity. I think it's interesting that the larger brained animals were better able to comprehend language. Koko seemed to actually understand more of the mechanics of things. There are however a lot of variables to contend with here though. For example, were these candidates the best and brightest of their ape classes or were they just randomly selected. Also, it may also be the teaching method....some people are good a teaching while others not so much. I do not know if they were introduced to other apes and taught them sign language, so now there are generations of chimps, gorillias, and bonobos that know sign language. Which would be interesting.
--MB(Anth 102)

Dr. Christine Elisabeth Boston said...

I'm thinking that these primates were chosen more for docility than intelligence, but as you'll learn in Anth 102 these primates (in the wild) demonstrate keen intellectual skills, including tool making, innovation, and more.

Anonymous said...

Primates are so smart that it makes me double think about human capacity. I have seen a video where a primate looks at these number 1-10 in 1 second and then it dissapears and has to touch the numbers 1-10 in order. Its amazing how much knowledge they can suck in but i feel bad that some primates we use as studies. But they are very useful to other people who are in need of help.
Briana Banuelos
Anth 102
1002

Unknown said...

I did not know that primates were smart. To be honest I never really thought about it. I've seen the new movie dawn of the apes so I guess I sorta got an imagination about them being smart but never really knew if it was true or not. However I think it is incredible that they can communicate to humans by using sign language. I am amazed at how their brain can retain some much knowledge as if the primate was a human being
Anthro 101

Anonymous said...

James K. Antho 101
I find it interesting that some animals have the ability to lie. This has got me thinking about dolphins and there supposed language. I wonder if there are cases of dolphins lying.

Dr. Christine Elisabeth Boston said...

Well, James, the topic of dolphins and whether or not they can communicate is beyond my scope of knowledge. I do know from previous conversations with others that that area of study, like primate language studies, is fraught with controversy, although the controversies appear to be different in many ways. If you are interested in learning more on the topic I encourage you to do your own research on the topic. There are several peer-reviewed articles that discuss the topic, and these can be found most often in animal behavior and psychology journals. At least that is what I found in a quick search on the topic.

Anonymous said...

The ability of primates to communicate efficiently with humans is, to me, proof of evolution. Though these animals were all in captivity, these linguistic findings show that it is possible to communicate with other species. Dog owners often speak to their dogs and receive some form of response from the canine, so why should it be different with other mammals? Communication is an ability to convey a message, and to receive confirmation that the message has been understood. That these primates have learned sign language, and that Lucy was able to then teach language is incredible! Koko is my favorite of these primates, if for no reason other than her apology which showed how much intelligence these creatures have. Though they may have been chosen for docility rather than intelligence, humans can learn so much from these examples. Bristol D. (Anth102)

Dr. Christine Elisabeth Boston said...

Thanks for your thoughtful comments, Bristol. It always amazes me how much credit will give dogs in regards to intelligence but not primates, even though primates are very closely related to us, human beings.

Anonymous said...

I have a question? Does this apply to all apes or are some smarter than other? Or is this on individual bases, just like humans are some smarter than others.

Dr. Christine Elisabeth Boston said...

All apes demonstrate incredibly high intellectual abilities. Only captive apes have demonstrated the ability to speak through sign as they were taught. But if wild apes were taught they'd most likely learn, as well, although potentially not continue using it unless there was a need.

Unknown said...

Those videos were so cool to watch. It just proves how intelligent apes are. They have such human-like personalities too.
Sarah Howard
Anth 102-1002

Anonymous said...

I think its cool how primates are like humans they don't look like us but they have similar characteristics as humans. Primates are very intelagent animals that
sometimes it surprising to see what they can learn in less time then humans.
Briana Banuelos
Anth 102

Anonymous said...

The point can be made that primates would never acquire language unless they were exposed to it by humans. However, the evidence clearly shows that primates can and will adapt to their environments. The larger brains of primates have the facility to adapt and acquire language from whatever source it is taught. Our early ancestors could have acquired similar skill sets as groups interacted with each other, just as today's primates are acquiring skill sets from their interactions with humans.

-Courteney Hedicke, Anth101

Dr. Christine Elisabeth Boston said...

Interesting point, Courtney, but as noted in your text it is believed that the development of several key factors, such as the complex brain and a specific gene, has caused humans to speak whereas primates still cannot. But you do make a good point and there remains potential for it to still occur in primates if the factors are just right.

Unknown said...

Anthropology 102:1002
I agree with one of the previous posts, I had no idea that UNR contributed in that way. While it is interesting to learn all these facts about primates, it makes me sad at the same time. I know from my psych classes that most of these primates had really bad endings. I wish there would be more studies done in their natural habitats versus lab settings. These animals should be respected, and not punished for our gain.

Anonymous said...

Honestly it caught me off guard, When UNR was mentioned in your blog. Washoe is a very intelligent primate by learning over 100 signs. I could imagine primates would be talking in no time if we some how keep pushing forward on these studies on primates. Eventually primates will talk instead of sign language. Hope to see a primate communicate with a human on voices not just by signs. Since they have more similarities with humans than any other species.

Anonymous said...

I am truly honored that this apes name was Washoe after the Washoe tribe of Nevada and California. Also, the fact that UNR was the university used for study, that's another point for Nevada! Very interesting how primates can teach their language, swear and even lie. I don't know how I would react getting sworn at by an Ape but I think I would be more amazed at the fact than actually upset.

Interesting post, thank you

Zachary Forrster
anthro 101 3001 summer

Anonymous said...

How language began is such a mystery to me. It is pretty crazy to think about sometimes, when I am talking to my friends I use all these different words to express how I feel and just imagining how those words even formed in the first place is really strange. I think language has a lot to do with emotion but the way emotions are put into words is what makes humans so unique. I have heard lots of things about KoKo. If an ape is able to comprehend such complicated things it makes me wonder what other animals will learn to communicate in the future.

Wayde Carr said...

people think primates aren't smart just because what they look like. primates are smart just look at videos on YouTube and google or even on face book many primates open up cars and doors. these primates do these to get food and some do it for fun but just like us they can have families and they can communicate some primates can use sign langue.

Anonymous said...

I've never heard about Washoe or her studies before. I'm fascinated with Lucy's ability to lie. Koko making new words is quite impressive. I recently read an article about chimps advancing to the stone age. My friends and I joked about "Plant of the Apes" becoming real. With a combination of knowing how to lie and create language, the joke is a little more amusing.

http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150818-chimps-living-in-the-stone-age

peacedude888 said...

I find it very interesting that the biggest little city held such an amazing event in finding out more about evolution by literally teaching a chimp to communicate. It is mind blowing that they can even learn it, and teach it to others of their species. - Mariah B

Jordan R said...

Interesting read to find out that gorillas actually have more insight into language and have a greater capacity to learn. I feel like media always shows chimpanzees as being the most advanced of the primate species.
Jordan R

Christine Jackson said...

I think that apes learning the ability to learn communication with sign language is astounding. But apes that has learned sign and they were put in a room or a spot together, then they start to communicate amongst themselves would be incredible. The ape that had seemed more advanced into sign language because she create new signs to objects she doesn't know the sign and learned far more words than the other apes had.

Charlie Goggin said...

I was impressed that the folks who condemn this kind of research have never been in close contact with great apes and have never interacted with any. I believe they would not be as critical if they had.

It seems to me that anyone who has had a close relationship with a pet will quickly realize that non-verbal communication is very common and useful. Perhaps our dogs cannot talk to us, nor can the other creatures we live with on a daily basis, but they certainly can and do communicate.

My dog lies to me, often. He pretends to go pee so he can stay out longer in the evening when I let him out before bed. I can honestly say he is not he smartest dog I have ever had, but this form of deceit fascinates me. It implies something about his understanding of me and my mind that one would not consider a possibility in a dog. Especially not a goofy one like Jace.

I have read of many instances of animals being deceitful and have observed hundreds if not thousands of the same myself. This behavior of trickery, requires the ability to understand something of the way the other creature thinks and infers possible behavior in the future.

I think the observations of Native Americans and then,later, biologists, of ravens "calling" wolves to injured or ill pray animals is an excellent example of inter-species communication where both species benefit.

Ravens cannot open a carcass,and certainly cannot take down an elk or a deer, but when the wolves kill, the ravens eat.

Dolphins, other cetaceans, Corvid birds, primates, elephants and parrots have all shown high intelligence and the ability to communicate more complex ideas than just predator or food. There have been studies showing that dolphins know the difference between "Take the ball to the hoop" and "Bring the hoop to the ball". Corvids have shown tool use and the manipulation of objects to make tools. Human raised orphaned Elephants living in the wild have somehow communicated to wild elephants that the people in a certain distant location will help them when they are wounded or ill. The wild elephants just show up at these elephant orphanages for treatment. This shows a level of communication akin to language.

Language is one form of communication, but as Dr. Boston pointed out in our lecture on Tuesday, verbal language only conveys about 30% of the message, body language, tone, and facial expressions communicate the other 70%.

I am not at all surprised by the intelligence of these great apes, nor their abilities to improvise and put novel words together. We have much to learn about the minds of other creatures and this research is very exciting and important.

Jessie Crivelli said...

This is wonderful! I can see how these animals learn language and pick up on different characteristics of it. This topic is very interesting to me because it shows the interconnections between primates and humans.

Anonymous said...

It's really no surprise that apes are capable of learning various methods of communication, especially since evolutionary theory suggests we evolved from primates. Imagine if this weren't the case--would we, as humans, have any form of language today?

Neva Rodrigues
ANTH 101, Section 3001

Dr. Christine Elisabeth Boston said...

Actually, humans did not evolve from primates. We share a common ancestor, but that ancestor is from 4-6 million years ago: http://humerusrevelations.blogspot.com/2013/04/in-time-of-chimpanzees-i-was-monkey.html?m=0

And further more the reason humans have language and other primates do not is due to anatomical, physical, and genetic factors. This is discussed in your text and notes. :)

Unknown said...

This was an interesting read. I have seen other TV shows that illustrated the remarkable abilities of Chimpanzees and gorillas to be able to communicate through sign language. The effort of the handlers was amazing as they worked with both signs and symbols. I never knew the names of the subjects and I find it interesting that the text refers to Washo instead of Washoe. It was also intriguing that some of the effort was performed right here at UNR. Whenever I read these studies it always takes my mind to the planet of the Apes movies from my childhood as I await the announcement that we have discovered a primate that can speak.

Aaliyah Caldwell said...

Ha, it's funny that primates can lie. You would never sit there and think about that. Of course I figured they was smart, because of dogs and other animals but lying, that's amazes me. Also how they learn different languages.
Aaliyah Caldwell

Ashley Jacobson said...

Talking about primates is very neat. I have always loved primates. they are my favorite animal. I didn't know as much as I did until I took your anthropology class. I thought learning more about the primate then I knew was a great learning experience.

Steven Benton said...

Its neat to see how monkeys share some of the same characteristics as humans. This article makes me smile when I read it because it gives information on how the primates communicate with humans.

Anonymous said...

I honestly would've never thought that primates were intelligent. I know most people find dogs smart because they respond quick, or they tend to respond more human like than other animals. We don't notice how smart most primates are because we don't converse with them or have them as pets. Who owns enough land to have a lion as a pet? We doubt most animals ability to be smart because we don't deal with them as much as we deal with dogs, cats, parrots etc.
-Brittany Duckett SA202

Unknown said...

My name is Aleisha watts, I think its an amazing thing the way primates are so smart. I kinda knew they were from the thing they present to humans. like understanding them. They have so much personality and are so smart it amazes me to know what else they really are capable of. I think it's so funny to think about if they actually spoke English like humans, that will be a big deal to the evolution of animals. Sign language is the hardest thing I think I can't do and for an animal to be able to do it before I just show many things are capable of doing.