Anthropologist Profile: Margaret Mead

Figure 1: Margaret Mead

Margaret Mead is one of the most influential and famous anthropologists to have ever existed.  She is responsible for bringing anthropology to the forefront of the public’s attention, as well as initiating paradigm shifts within the discipline.  This blog post will focus on the life and contributions of Dr. Margaret Mead (Figure 1).

Born on December 16, 1901 to an economist and feminist political activist in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Mead was groomed from an early age to focus on social studies and activism.  While she initially attended DePauw University she quickly transferred to Barnard College, where she was supervised and taught by Franz Boas.  His influence landed her at Columbia, where she completed her PhD.  Through her studies she also met and was mentored by another famous anthropologist, Ruth Benedict.  Collectively, Boas and Benedict’s influence led to Mead’s pioneering changes to the discipline.

Her scholarly work focused largely on southeast Asian cultures, specifically Samoan and New Guinea societies.  It was here where she cultivated her studies on cultural determinism, which refers to the influence culture has on human development.  Prior to publishing her work there was a push in science toward biology dictating human development, but Mead’s work on Samoan adolescence demonstrated the importance of cultural expectations on adolescent behaviors.  She also furthered anthropological knowledge on gender and child rearing, which showed both the scholarly community and the public that there was a great deal of diversity that existed for both.

In addition to her scholarly work Mead was a dedicated lecturer and publisher of columns in several magazines.  She wrote a regular piece for Redbook magazine as part of her initiative to keep the public informed about anthropology.  Additionally, she wanted to promote ideals regarding the benefits of cultural diversity, as well as use her status and station to promote activism for race relations, women’s rights, drug abuse, environmental pollution, population control, and world hunger.

Mead’s personal life was mired with three marriages and divorces, but she had a daughter, Marie Catherine Bateson, with her third husband, another anthropologist.  She served as the president of two major organizations, including the American Anthropological Association and the American Association of the Advancement of Science.  She passed away on November 15, 1978 and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom a year later.  

References

Author, N. (2009). MARGARET MEAD (1901-1978): An Anthropology of Human Freedom. Retrieved from The Institute for Intercultural Studies: http://www.interculturalstudies.org/Mead/biography.html

Author, N. (2018, February 27). Margaret Mead Biography. Retrieved from The Biography.com website: https://www.biography.com/people/margaret-mead-9404056

Editors. (2018). Margaret Mead: American Anthropologist. Retrieved from Encyclopaedia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-Mead

History.com Staff. (2010). Margaret Mead. Retrieved from History.com: http://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/margaret-mead

 

  

The Singular They

In continuation of the previous discussion on language and power today’s blog post will address recent changes that have led to more inclusivity in the English language.  In 2015 the Oxford English Dictionary officially acknowledged the singular they, and around that time several other major organizations, including the Associated Press and Chicago Manual of Style, also officially recognized the term.  The singular they is meant to make up for a deficiency in the English language that had been attempted to be rectified over several centuries but never quite was.  This blog post will explore the English language, the inclusion of the singular they, and what it means for gender nonconforming or transgender individuals.

Pronouns are words that are meant to replace nouns, often referring to the gender of the individual they refer to.  Common pronouns include he, she, it, or the plural they.  As you may notice or already be aware none of these pronouns are gender-neutral.  Each of these refers to a specific type, be it masculine, feminine, neither, or many.  English initially had a gender-neutral pronoun many, many centuries (when it was Old English), but as English changed (as all languages do) the gender-neutral pronoun disappeared. 

Several grammarians, however, felt that a gender-neutral pronoun should be reintroduced, and since the 17^th century that is just what they did.  Several different options have been made available over the past few centuries, but none seemed to stick.  The most recent shifts toward gender-neutral language included changing the default masculine pronouns (where everyone of unknown gender was referred to with the masculine pronouns, he, him, his) to a default feminine pronoun (she, her, hers) or referring to both (he/she or s/he).  These were rejected for various reasons, including that the switch from one pronoun to another did not solve the initial problem, the changes being too politically charged, and the inclusion of multiple pronouns being too cumbersome or wordy. 

Ultimately, while these changes were steps forward they still lacked true inclusivity, meaning they continued to acknowledge only two genders.  This does not accommodate for the acceptance of third gender categories here in the United States or their recognition in other cultures.  A push for a better pronoun was recently reintroduced into the discussions on language and a gender-neutral pronoun, and the singular they was chosen.  Originally introduced as an option in 1794 the singular they allows individuals to refer to multiple different genders without having to identify which specific one (if one even exists since the singular they also accommodates gender nonconforming individuals).  Therefore, it is the best option given the range of options of gender categories that currently exist (e.g., male, female, transgender, gender-nonconforming, gender-neutral, genderfluid, genderqueer, nonbinary individuals, and many more not currently included here due to lack of space and comprehensive knowledge). 

The inclusion and acceptance of the singular they is one step toward accepting third gender categories into the culture, which is a big step for these groups.  By creating and using language to refer to them, particularly in an inclusive way, these groups can be recognized as equals and gain equivalent rights and privileges previously denied them.  While many feel that the inclusion of the singular they into the English language is just a passing fad it is important to realize that third gender categories have existed for centuries in various cultures, and they are not going away.  By changing the language we, as a culture, are accepting that fact and taking steps toward creating a better, safer, and more accepting culture for all.

Works Cited

Author, N. (2018). Gender Pronouns. Retrieved from Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender Resource Center: https://uwm.edu/lgbtrc/support/gender-pronouns/

Baron, D. (No Date). The Words that Failed: A chronology of early nonbinary pronouns. Retrieved from University of Illinois: http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/essays/epicene.htm

Berry, C., Brizee, A., McGregor Boyle III, E. C., Atherton, R., Geib, E., Sheble, M., & Murton, H. (2018). Gendered Pronouns & Singular “They”. Retrieved from Purdue Website: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/595/04/

The Writing Center of the University of North Carolina. (2018). Gender-Inclusive Language. Retrieved from The Writing Center: https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/gender-inclusive-language/